实用英语写作技巧

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第十六单元 推展段落方法之八——分类法

  

16．1分类法

分类法（division and classification）是把一事物拆成几部分，表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常，作者以总类开头，然后把总类拆开，——列举部分或全部分类。

示范段落16－1

There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library．First，there are books on all subjects，both in English and in many other languages．These books are organized according to subject，title，and author in a central filing system called card catalog．Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks．Second，there are reference materials，which include encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，etc．and which generally must be used in the library itself．Third，there are periodicals—magazines，news－papers，pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in racks or which have been micro－filmed to conserve space．Like reference works，periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library．

16．2示范段落分析

主题句：There are three basic kinds of materials that can be foundin any good library．

分类词（Classifier）：kinds

列举词（Listing Signals）：first，second，third

分类（Categories）：1．books on all subjects

2．reference materials

3．periodicals

16．2关于如何写分类段落的建议

1）依据一个原则分类

把一事物分类后，要自始至终遵循同一分类原则。在示范段落16－1，分类原则是“the kinds of materials”。

2）所分类别必须互不包容

在示范段落16－1中，属于第一类的“books on all subjects”与属于第二类的“reference materials”界线分明．反之亦然。

3）分类必须完整

如果所分类别不完整，所作的分类则徒劳无益。如上例，所分三种“materials”应包括“all materials in a library”。

4）运用熟悉度方法排列

作者经常根据该读者对所分类别的熟悉程度排列顺序。通常先讨论读者最熟悉的，然后逐步讨论不熟悉的（关于熟悉度法见第19单元）。

5）使用分类词和列举符号

有经验的作者经常使用类词介绍概类，然后使用列举符号表明概类中的各分类。在示范段落16－1中，类词是“kind”，列举符号是“first，second，third”，下面是经常使用的类词：

kind，type，group，thought，way，class，part，element，factor，aspect，division，characteristic，subdivision，reasons，category，等等。

Exercise 16-1

Directions：Read the following paragraph，find out the topic sentence，the classifier，and the categories．

There are three fundamental human body types—endomorphic，mesomorphic，and ectomorphic．The extreme endomorph combines heavy fat distribution and lack of bony angularity with around face，short neck，wide hips，and heavy limbs．The extreme mesomorph has a solid chest，slender waist，long torso，and relatively short，powerful arms and legs．Extreme ectomorphs are characterized by their slender bodies，short trunks，long arms and legs，long narrow hands and feet，and lack of fat．

Topic Sentence：____________________________________________

Classifier：_____________

Categories：________________________________________________

Exercise 16－2

Directions：Divide the books college students often read into three kinds and describe them one by one．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Exercise 16-3

Directions：Write a paragraph of division and catagory with the given topic sentence and details．

Topic sentence：A language is made up of many elements

Details：1．sounds 2．words 3．sentences

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

U-Boat

第十七单元 推展段落方法之九——因果法（Ⅰ）

  

17．1因果法

因果法（cause and effect）段落通常回答“why？”的问题。大多数人认为在自己或别人生活中发生的事情必然事出有因，因此总要知道为什么会发生这样或那样的事情。原因（cause）指的是导致结果的发生在过去的事情，结果（effect）指的是已发生的事情将会产生的后果。

17．2结果法

解释一个原因（cause）的几个结果（effects）的段落，可能以下面两种顺序之一出现：或者以原因开头，接着指出一个一个结果，如下面示范段落17－1所示；或首先摆出结果，然后指出原因。

示范段落17－1

Many people are worried about what television has done to the generation of American children who have grown up watching it．For one thing，recent studies tend to show that TV stifles creative imagination．Some teachers feel that television has taken away the child's ability to form mental pictures in his own mind，resulting in children who cannot understand a simple story without visualillustrations．Secondly，too much TV too early tends to cause children to withdraw from real life experiences．Thus，they grow up to be passive spectators who can only respond to action，but not initiate it．The third area for concern is the serious complaint frequently made by elementary school teachers that children exhibit a low tolerance for the frustrations of learning．Because they have been conditioned to see all problems resolved in 30 or 60 minutes on TV，they are quickly discouraged by any activity that promises less than instant gratification．But perhaps the most serious result is the impact of television violence on children，who have come to regard it as an everyday thing．Not only does this increase their tolerance of violent behavior in others，but most authorities now concede that under certain conditions，some children will imitate anti－ social acts that they witness on television．

17．3示范段落分析

主题句：Many people are worried about what television has done to the generation of American children who have grown up watching it．

因果模式（cause and effect pattern）：

原因（cause）：television

结果（effects）：1．TV stifles creative imagination．

2．TV causes children to withdraw from real life experiences．

3．Children exhibit a low tolerance for the frustrations of learning．

4．Children have come to regard violence as an everyday thing．

17．4关于如何写因果法段落的建议

1）段落一开始就表明目的

在段落一开始就陈述你所关心的原因或结果是什么。例如，在示范段落17－1，主题句就把目的限定为分析“the effects of television on American children”。

2）选择主题要适中

选择太大的主题会给你带来麻烦。因此，记住要选择你可以驾驭的主题。例如：“effects of television”作为主题会太大，难以下笔。然而把它限制为“effects on American children”就容易多了（第18单元继续讨论因果法）。

Exercise17－1

Directions：Write a paragraph，analyzing the effects of students cheating on exams．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Exercise 17-2

Directions：Write a paragraph，analyzing the advantages of job interview．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第十八单元 推展段落方法之九——因果法（Ⅱ）

  

18．1原因法

有时，一个结果会源于几个原因。同样，段落可或以结果开头或以结果结束，作者可以从熟悉到不熟悉的原因逐一分析，或是从分析一个又一个读者不熟悉的原因开头，最后引出读者熟悉的结果。选用哪一种，决定于作者认为哪一种更有说服力。

示范段落18-1

Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．Foremost is，that air and water quality in many cities have improved as a result of the 1970's pollution control efforts．Meanwhile，rural areas have been built up，leaving many animals on the edges of suburbs．In addition，urban wildlife refuges have been created．The Greater London Council last year spent ＄750,000 to buy land and build 10 permanent wildlife refuges in the city．As a result，many big birds are now living in the city．For peregrine falcons cities are actully safer than rural cliff dwellings．By 1970 the birds had died out east of the Mississippi because DDT had made their eggs too thin to support life．That year，scientist Tom Cade of Cornell University began raising the birds for release in cities，for cities afforded plentyof food．

18．2 示范段落分析

主题句：Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．

因果模式（Cause-effect Pattern）：

结果（Effect）：wild animals back to the cities

原因（Causes）： 1．Air and water quality have improved．

2．Rural areas have been built up．

3．Urban wildlife refuges have been created．

18．3 因—果—因法

有时候，一个原因也许会引起一个结果，这个结果又成为另一个结果的原因，如示范段落18-2所示。

示范段落18-2

For some time now，medical scientists have noted an alarming increase in disease of the heart and circulation among people who smoke cigarettes．It has been found that the presence of nicotine in the blood stream causes blood vessels to contract，thus slowing circulation，which eventully leads to hardening of the arteries．As the arteries stiffen，less blood reaches the brain，and the end result of this slowdown is the cerebral hemorrhage，commonly referred to as a“stroke”．In addition，nicotine in the bloodstream reduces the ability of the hemoglobin to release oxygen，resulting in shortness of breath．The lack of oxygen forces the heart to beat faster—that is，the pulse rate increases—and in turn accelerates the risk of heart attack．

18．4．示范段落分析

因-果-因模式（Cause-Effect-Cause Pattern）：

Smoking tobacco→nicotine in the blood streams

→the blood vessels constract…

18．5 关于写因果段落的建议（续）

3）着重分析直接的、明显的原因

每个结果都有无数的原因，同样，每个行为都会导致无数的结果。因果段落应只着重分析直接的、明显的原因，忽略间接的原因。例如，一个学生成绩不好，直接原因是没有认真学习，间接原因也许是对学校不满。显然，我们应该着眼于直接的原因而摒弃间接的原因。

4）根据重要性或熟悉程度排列细节（见第19单元）

5）使用适当的排列符号（listing signals）（见第34单元）

Exercise 18-1

Directions：Read the following paragraph of cause and effect，adding suitable listing signals and linking expressions．

There are many reasons why languages change．____，

various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away from one another to establish isolated，independent communities．________is the independence of and interaction with foreign cultures，often as a result of military conquest．________is rapidly expanding technologe and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into close contact，with borrowing between languages a common phenomenon in the contemporary world．All languages change as the experiences of their speakers change．

Exercise 18-2

Directions：Write a paragraph analyzing the causes of students cheating on exams．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第十九单元 组织段落方法——重要性和熟悉度顺序

  

19．1 重要性顺序排列法

前面我们已经讨论了组织段落的两种方法——时间顺序法（time-order）和空间顺序法（space-order）。组织段落的第三种方法是根据重要性排列的方法（to organize details according to their order of importance）。作者使用这种方法的依据是他认为所选用的细节应如何加以强调。

使用重要性顺序法，可选用上升顺序（ascending order），或下降顺序（aescending oraer）。前者先列举次要观点，把重要的留到最末（如示范段落17-1），后者先强调最重要的观点，然后列举次要观点（如示范段落4-1）。

19．2 熟悉度顺序排列法

对于某些段落，也许使用熟悉度顺序法（order of familiarity）更恰当。这种方法根据读者对作者所选用的一系列细节的熟悉程度排列。例如，在分类段落中，作者经常先谈论读者比较熟悉的、具体的细节，然后谈论读者不大熟悉的细节，如示范段落16-1。

19．3 使用顺序法的一般准则

到目前为止，我们共讨论了四种组织段落顺序，使用哪一种顺序取决于作者的写作目的和读者对主题的熟悉程度。

1）如果你要说服别人相信一个观点，应该选用重要性顺序，把最好和最有力的理由放在能使读者最容易牢记的地方——段末。

2）如果你要向读者准确地展示一个场面，则应选用空间顺序描述，以便你的读者能够在脑海中再现你所描绘的画面。

3）如果读者对你要谈论的话题不大熟悉，则应从熟悉的观点着手。

4）如果你要告诉读者发生了什么事情或怎样做某件事，则需要时间顺序。

Exercise 19-1

Directions：Read the following two paragraphs and analyze their orders of organization．

  

（1）

  

Why are young people so enthusiastic about computers？It is mainly because they find that the computer has a large number of desirable properties．First，it's not terribly demanding，and it does what it is told．Second，it's easier to be a friend to a computer，for it won't make fun of you．Nor does it scold you or talk back．Third，the computer is more interesting than any other object．Like people，it is interactive．When you ask it a question，it gives you an answer．And because it stores great quantities of information，it can oftenanswer more questions，more accurately，than human friends．Finally，by programing a computer，a youngster can create a world of his own．

Topic Sentence：____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Developing Method：_________________________________________

Details：1．_______________________________________________

2．_______________________________________________

3．_______________________________________________

4．_______________________________________________

Order of Organization：________________________________________

  

（2）

  

People travel because travel benefits them in a number of ways．First，it enables people to derive much pleasure from seeing sight sand snapping pictures．Second，it provides an effective way to get their mind off their work．It relieves them from strain and makes them thoroughly relaxed and ready to resume their work with rennewed efforts．Third，it offers an opportunity to visit old friends and make new friends，too．Finally，it allows people to see new customs，learn new things，gain new experience and enables them to come back with broader mind．

Topic Sentence：____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Developing Method：________________________________________



Details：1．______________________________________________

2．______________________________________________

3．______________________________________________

4．______________________________________________

Order of Organization：______________________________________

Exercise 19-1

Directions：Write a paragraph about the unfavorable effects of advertisements，using order of importance．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 19-2

Directions：Write a paragraph about the phenomena of the wasting of water，using order of familiarity．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十单元 推展段落方法——混合方法

  

20．1 混合方法（Mixed Patterns）

到目前为止，我们讨论了九种推展段落方法——1）事实数据法（facts and statistics）；2）叙述法（narration）；3）描述法（description）；4）过程分析法（process analysis）；5）定义法（definition）；6）举例法（examples）；7）比较对比法（comparison and contrast）；8）分类法（division and classification）；9）因果法（cause and effect）。我们还讨论了四种组织段落的方法：1）时间顺序法（time order）；2）空间顺序法（space order）；3）重要性顺序法（order of importance）；4）熟悉度顺序法（order of familiarity）。此外，我们还谈及一个好的段落的三个特征：1）完整性（completeness）；2）统一性（unity）；3）连贯性（coherence）。

我们在前面各单元的示范段落中已经发现，极少段落是仅用一种推展方法的。作者常常在段落中使用一种方法作为支配方法（dominant method），另外一种或数种作为辅助方法（supporting method）。

示范段落20-1

Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．One of the oddest incidents occurred on January 16，1900．An angry workman broke a crocodile mummy into pieces．He wassurprised to find that the mummy had been wrapped in sheets of papyrus，the reed paper of ancient Egypt．And on the papyrus there was writing．

20．2示范段落分析

主题句：Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．

组织段落顺序：Time order

支配推展方法：Example

辅助推展方法：Narration

示范段落20-2

There are two kinds of memory：short-term and long-term．Information stored in the long-term memory can be recalled at a later time when it is needed．The information may be kept for days or weeks．In contrast，information stored in the short-term memory is kept for only a few minutes，usually by repeating the in formation over and over．

20．3示范段落分析

主题句：There are two kinds of memory：short-term and long-term．

组织段落方法：Order of Familiarity

支配推展方法：Division and Classification

辅助推展方法：Description，Contrast

Exercise 20-1

Directions：Write a paragraph on population increase，using cause and effect as the dominant method，and examples，facts or statistics as the supporting methods．

Why has the world population been increasing so rapidly in the last decades？_____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 20-2

Directions：Write a paragraph on why you chose your specialty，combining the various methods you have learned．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Exercise 20-3

Directions：Write a paragraph about whether weekend homework should be abolished．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 20-4

Directions：Write a paragraph about your favourite season．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十一单元 从段落到篇章

  

21．1 段落和篇章

段落和篇章在长度上有明显的不同，但是它们在结构上是一致的。首先，段落是由表达其主题思想的主题句（Topic Sentence）或主题导句（Topic Introducer）引出的，而篇章中的首段也是该篇文章主题思想的导言和引言；其次，一个段落必须有若干个展开句使主题思想得以展开和充实，同样篇章的主体部分也是由几个推展或后续首段主题思想的段落组成。再者，在段落结束时有一个结尾句（Concluding Sentence）总结段落的主旨，篇章也同样有一个对上下文进行归纳和总结主题思想的末段。尽管不是所有的段落和篇章都具备这样的完整结构，但典型的段落和篇章在结构上是一致的。

根据上述，让我们比较一下Model Paragraph 21-1和Model Essay 21-2，后者的主题思想完全基于前者。所不同的是，Model Paragraph中的六个句子①，②，③，④，⑤，⑥均已被扩展成Model Essay中的六个段落。

Model Paragraph 21-1

①To be successful in a job interview，the applicant should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities．②In as much as the first and often lasting impression of a person isdetermined by the clothes one wears，the job applicant should take care to appear well-groomed and modestly dressed，avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire．③Besides care for personal appearance，one should pay close attention to one's manner of speaking，which should be neither showy nor too familiar but rather straightforward，grammatically accurate，and friendly．④In addition，one should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirements of the position for which one is applying in relation to one's own professional experience and interests．⑤And finally，there ally impressive applicant must convey a sense of self-confidence and enthusiasm for work，factors which all interviewers value highly．⑥The job seeker who displays these characteristics，with just a little luck，will certainly succeed in a typical personal interview．

Model Essay 21-2

①To be successful in a job interview，you should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities．You need to create a good image in the limited time available，usually from 30 to 45 minutes．Furthermore，you must make a positive impression which the interviewer will remember while he interviews other applicants．A tall times，you should present your most attractive qualities during an interview．

②You should，for example，take care to appear well-groomed and modestly dressed，avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire．On the positive side，clothes may be a good leveller，putting you on a par with other applicants and requiring the interviewer to consider more important qualifications．On the otherhand，clothes which are too informal may convey the impression that you are not serious about the job or that you may be casual about your work as well as your dress．Clothes which are too elaborate，too colorful，or too expensive suggest that you do not understand what behavior is appropriate for the job or that you are snobbish or frivolous．The right clothes worn at the right time，however，gain the respect of the interviewer and his confidence in your judgement．It may not be true that“clothes make the man，”but the first and often lasting impression of you is determined by the clothes you wear．

③Besides care for personal appearance，you should pay close attention to your manner of speaking．Since speech is a reflection of personality，you should reflect confidence by speaking in a clear voice，loud enough to be heard without being aggressive or overpowering．Your speech should not call attention to itself，but it should reveal the individuality and ability of the speaker．Obviously，you must speak without grammatical errors or dialect differences for which you might be criticised or which might cause embrarrassment to the employer．Although there are cultural differences with respect to the formality of the job interview，your speech must show you to be a friendly and pleasant person．

④Speaking without a subject worth talking about will not impress anyone．You should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirements of the position for which you are applying in relation to your own professional experiences and interests．Knowing something about the position enables you to ask intelligent questions about the work and requirements for the job．The interviewer candecide from the questions asked whether you are genuinely interested or knowledgeable．You can comment on your own training，experience，and other qualifications in relation to the specific tasks of the position．the interviewer can determine whether your background and potential seem to fit the position．The position for which you are applying is not only the safest topic for discussion，it is essential that you demonsrtate your understanding of the requirements and your abilities in meeting these requirements．

⑤Finally，to be really impressive you must convey a sense of self-confidence and enthusiasm for work．As already indicated，you demonstrate self-confidence by your manner of speech and dress．You further show it by being prepared for the interview with information and questions about the position．In addition，the way you enter the room，sit，look at the interviewer，and fill out application forms and other papers may express self-confidence．The eagerness with which you discuss the job rather than the salary may reveal your enthusiasm for work．You may express it also through your questions and comments about working conditions and facilities．And，Of course，your previous experience and success will tell the interviewer about your enthusiasm for work．Both of these qualities—self-confidence and enthusiasm for work—are valued highly by all interviewers．

⑥The appropriately dressed job applicant indicates his sound judgement．His manner of speaking suggests his friendliness and competence．His curiosity and information about the position he is seeking demonstrate his sincerity and potential in the job．He exhibits self-confidence through his knowledge，and he shows hisenthusiasm for work．If you display these characteristics，with just a little luck，you will certainly succeed in the typical personal interview．

21．2 段落与篇章的结构

根据所给范例，我们可以看到段落的结构很简单，它主要是由三部分组成的：

1）主题句（Topic Sentence）：引出全段的主题思想。

2）几个支撑句（Supporting Sentences）：说明或铺叙该段落的主题思想。

3）结尾句（Concluding Sentence）：总结段落的主旨。

由此，范例段落的结构可表达为：TS/S1，S2，S3，S4/C=

①/②，③，④，⑤/⑥。

TS：主题句

S：支撑句

C：结尾句

同样，段落的组成结构TS/S1，S2，S3，S4/C又可以说是篇章结构的扩展，篇章也由三部分组成：

1）主题段（Topic Paragraph）：引出并点明支配全篇文章的主题，指出主题所包含的几个方面，确定推展段的内容和形式。

2）支撑段（Supporting Paragraphs）：由若干段落组成，对主题段所引出的主题展开讨论。其直接作用是支持各段的主题句，间接作用是辅助各段的主题句支持主题段中的主题思想。

3）结尾段（Concluding Paragraph）：对全文归纳总结。一般可采用以下四种方式对全文进行归纳：a．简明归纳全文；b．回顾主题，使首尾呼应；c．变化措词，重申主题；d、提出问题，启发思考。

21．3 Model Paragraph 21-1．和Model Essay 21-2．的分析

由此可以看出段落范例中的主题句已扩展成为篇章中的主题段；支撑句S1发展为第一支撑段的主题句；支撑句S2成为第二支撑段的主题句……；范例段中的结尾句则成了结尾段的主题句。

Exercise 21-1

Directions：Find the key ideas in each of the sentences of model paragraph and write short answers for each on the line below．You may use words from the sentence or words of your own to express the key ideas．The first one will serve as an example for you．

e．g．successful interview requires certain qualities

____________________________________________①topic sentence

____________________________________________②____________

____________________________________________③____________

____________________________________________④____________

____________________________________________⑤____________

____________________________________________⑥____________

Exercise 21-2

Directions：Read the model essay again，try to observe the plan of organization of the essay，and write out its organization．The organization of the model essay is：____________

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第二十二单元 篇章的统一性、支撑性、连贯性和一致性

  

22．1 篇章的统一性（Unity of an Essay）

篇章的统一性是指各推展段落都必须紧扣主题思想，不包含与主题思想无关的任何部分。如果包含与主题思想无关的部分或出现多层意思，就会导致主旨不清，思路混乱。

22．2 篇章的支撑性（Support of an Essay）

只有通过具体的实例、事实、细节或事件对篇章中的主题思想加以充实和发挥，才能使文章的主题更加明确具体。例如：在Unit 21-2范文中的四个Supporting Paragraphs（SP1，SP2，SP3，SP4）都是通过具体的实例、细节，来进一步明确本篇文章的主题思想—To be successful in a job interview，you must demonstrate cetain personal and professional qualities．

22．3 篇章的连贯性（Coherence of an Essay）

篇章的连贯性是指句子与句子，段落与段落的排列组合必须合乎逻辑（意连）；句子间以及段落间的过渡必须自然流畅（形连）。篇章的意连有三种：a．Time Order or Chronological Order（时间顺序）；b．Space or Spatial Order（位置或空间顺序）；c．Logical Order（逻辑顺序）。其中，逻辑顺序又可分为三种：

1）Order of Importance（重要性顺序）

2）Specific-to-General（从具体到总论）

3）General-to-Spacific（从总论到具体）

例如，在Unit 21中的Model Essay中，作者就是以General-to-Specific的逻辑顺序来推展文章主题的。作者先是给出一个Topic Sentence，然后通过四个具体的“You should……”对主题加以支撑、充实，从而达到了意连。

而转换此词语（Transitions）则是篇章形连的重要手段。

Unit 21中的Model Essay也正是通过许许多多的转换词语使文章达到了自然流畅。以下让我们就此范文的首段（TP）和第一支撑段（SP1）为例，来看看转换词语承上启下之作用。





22．4 篇章的一致性（Sentence Skills in an Essay）

若要读者完全、正确地领会我们所要表达的思想内容，在写作篇章时，我们必须简洁明白，写出合乎语法规范的句子，正确的语法包括（nouns；pronouns；verb tenses；fragments（不完整的句子）；dangling modifiers（垂悬修饰语）；run-ons（用错逗号的句子或乱加从句的冗长句子），etc．

Exercise 22-1

Directions：Two versions of a passage are given below．Both are unified，supported，and organized，but one version communicates more clearly and effectively its ideas than the other．Which one，and why？

There are times when people are so tired that they fall asleep almost anywhere．For example，there is a lot of sleeping on the bus or train on the way home from work in the evenings．A man will be reading the newspaper，and seconds later it appears as if he is trying to eat it．Or he will fall asleep on the shoulder of the stranger sitting next to him．

Another place where unplanned naps go on is in the lecture hall．In some classes，a student will start snoring so loudly that the professor has to ask another student to shake the sleeper awake．Amore embarrassing situation occurs when a student leans on one elbow and starts drifting off to sleep．The weight of the head pushes the elbow off the desk，and this momentum carries the rest of the body along．The student wakes up on the floor with no memory of how he got there．

The worst time to fall asleep is when driving a car．Police reports are full of accidents that occur when people fall asleep at the wheel and go off the road．If the drivers are very lucky，they are not seriously hurt．One woman's car，for instance，went into the river．She woke up in four feet of water and thought it was raining．When people are really tired，nothing will stop them from falling asleep—no matter where they are．

（1）There are times when people are so tired that they fall asleep almost anywhere．（2）For example，on the bus or train on the way home from work．（3）A man will be reading the newspaper，seconds later it appears as if he is trying to eat it．（4）Or he will fall asleep on the shoulder of the stranger sitting next to him．

（5）Another place where unplanned naps go on are in the lecture hall．（6）In some classes，a student will start snoring so loudly that the professor has to ask another student to shake the sleeper awake．（7）A more embarrassing situation occurs when a student leans on one elbow and starting to drift off to sleep．（8）The weight of the head push the elbow off the desk，and this momentum carries the rest of the body along．（9）The student wakes up on the floor with no memory of how he got there．

（10）The worst time to fall asleep is when driving a car．（11）Police reports are full of accidents that occur when people conk out and go off the road．（12）If the drivers are lucky they are not seriously hurt．（13）One womans car，for instance went into the river．（14）She woke up in four feet of water．（15）And thought it was raining．（16）When people are really tired，nothing will stopthem from falling asleep—no matter where they are．

Exercise 22-2

Directions：Compare the second version with the first one，and choose the correct answers from the following choices（The exercise is mainly for sentence skills）

1．In sentence（2），                         2．In sentence（3），

a．missing comma                              a．run-on

b．missing apostrophe                         b．sentence fragment

c．sentence fragment                          c．mistake in subject-verb agreement

d．dangling modifier                           d．irregular verb mistake

3．In sentence（5），                         4．In sentence（7），

a．sentence fragment                          a．misplaced modifier

b．spelling error                                 b．dangling modifier

c．run-on                                          c．mistake in parallelism

d．mistake in subject-verb                   d．run-on

agreement

5．In sentenc（8），                           6．In sentence（11），

a．nonstandard English verb                a．irregular verb mistake

b．run-on                                          b．sentence fragment

c．comma mistake                              c．slang phrase

d．missing capital letter                       d．mistake in subject-verb agreement

7．In sentence（12），                       8．In sentence（13），

a．missing apostrophe                         a．mistake in parallelism

b．missing comma                              b．irregular verb mistake

c．irregular verb mistake                     c．missing apostrophe

d．sentence fragment                          d．missing capital letter

9．In sentence（13），                       10．In sentence（15），

a．missing comma around an               a．missing quotation mark

interrupter

b．dangling modifier                           b．irregular verb mistake

c．run-on                                          c．sentence fragment

d．cliché                                            d．mistake in pronoun point of view

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第二十三单元 如何用举例法推展篇章

  

根据不同的写作目的，篇章写作一般分为四种主要类型：

1）Narration（叙述文）

2）Description（描写文）

3）Exposition（说明文）

4）Persuasion and argumentation（议论文）

从本单元起，我们将着重介绍在大学英语四级统考中应用得最为广泛的说明文。说明文常用于阐述事物的特征、本质、性能、结构、用途等。抽象的说明是很难让人理解和接受的，所以在进行说明时我们常用举例法、比较与对照法、定义与分类法、过程分析法和因果法等写作方法推展段落和篇章。这些方法均已在段落推展法之四、五、六、七、八、九中一一做了介绍。以下我们将在第二十三、二十四、二十五、二十六及二十七单元中分别用这些方法对篇章的推展作进一步的讨论。

另外，在今后的各单元中，我们将尽量少用汉语，以便使大家养成用英语思维的良好习惯。

23．1 举例法Examples

在篇章写作中，我们常用实例来对自己的观点或文章的主题思想进行说明、解释，使抽象、难解的事物具体化。这不仅有助于读者感受到我们的观点，而且可使文章读起来生动、有趣。切记：举例时一定要典型，能为文章的主题思想服务；而且还要生动、有趣，给人以深刻印象。

23．2 Comparison of Two Model Essays（两例范文的比较）

  

1）My Bad-Tempered Father

  

My father is easily angered by normal，everyday mistake．One day my father told me to wash the car and cut the grass．I did not hear exactly what he said，and so I asked him to repeat it．Then he went into a hysterical mood and shouted，“Can't you hear？”

Another time he asked my mother to go to the store and buy groceries with a fifty-dollar bill，and told her to spend no more than twenty dollars．She spent twenty-two dollars．As soon as he found out，he immediately grabbed the change from her and shouted that she was never to do any errands for him again．He did not speak to her for the rest of the day．

My father also gives my older brothers a hard time with his irritable moods．One day，he told them to be home from their dates by midnight；they came home at 12∶15．He informed them that they were grounded for three weeks．

To my father，making a simple mistake is like commiting a severe crime．

  

2）My Generous Grandfather

  

My grandfather is the most generous person I know．He has given up a life of his own in order to give his grandchildren everything they want．Not only has he given up many years of his life to raise his children properly，but he is now sacrificing many more years to his grandchildren．

His generosity is also evident in his relationship with his colleagues，neighbors and friends．He has been responsible for many good deeds and has always been there to help all the people around him in times of trouble．Everyone knows that he will gladly lend a helping hand．

He is so generous that you almost have to feel sorry for him．If one day he suddenly became selfish，it would be earthshaking．That's my grandfather．

23．3 Analysis of the Two Model Essays（两例范文的分析）

The first passage is more effective，for it offers specific examples that show us the father in action．We see for ourselves why the writer describes the father as bad-tempered．It also uses transitional phrases or sentence to organize the passange more clearly and logically．Using“one day”，the writer introduces us the first example of his father's hot temper；“Another time”indicates the second example and the transitional sentence“My father also gives my older brothers a hard time with his irritable moods”indicates another example will follow．It is the supporting examples and the transitional devices that make the passage more effective and coherent．

The second writer，on the other hand，gives us no specific evidence．The writer tells us repeatedly that the grandfather is generous but never shows us examples of that generosity．Just how，for instance，did the grandfather sacrifice his life for his children and grandchildren？Did the grandfather hold two jobs so that his soncould go to college，or so that his daughter could finish her education？Does he give up time with his wife and friends to travel every day to his daughter's house to baby sit，go to the store，and help with the dishes？We need to judge for ourselves whether the writer is making a valid point about the grandfather，but with out specific details we cannot do so．In fact，we have almost no picture of the grandfather at all．

Writing Assignment for Unit 23

Directions：Write a short passage of the title“My Sweet-Tempered Mother according to the given topic sentence．

Remember to provide specific details to illustrate your point and use transitional words or phrases to make your writing more clearly and coherently．You may write your passage on the good qualities of a person by using some of the descriptive words listed below．They are only suggestions，you can write about other qualities as well．

honest                hardworking         supportive           modest

open-minded       considerate           independent         good-humoured

cooperative         energetic              disciplined           patient

generous            trustworthy          neat                    courageous

ambitious            soft-hearted          reliable                unpretentious

My mother is the most sweet-tempered person I know．

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十四单元 如何用比较与对照法推展篇章

  

24．1 Comparison and Contrast（比较与对照）

Often we may want to describe several aspects of two subjects that have both similarities and differences．When we compare two things，we show how they are similar；when we contrast two things，we show how they are different．We may compare or contrast two schools，two cars，two friends，two jobs，two cities，etc．．For this purpose，we may employ the combined techniques of comparison and contrast．In writing the essay，you should always bear two important decisions in mind：①Whether you are to do a comparison，a contrast，or a mixture，or②Whether you are to use an item-to-item（逐事比较）or point-to-point（逐点比较）method of development（both have been explained and illustrated in Unit14）

Model Essay 24-1

Shanghai and New York are two of the biggest cities in the world．They are different in some ways，but they are similar in some other ways．

Shanghai is one of the most densely populated cities in Asia，and New York is one of the most densely populated cities in North America．The population of Shanghai is homogenous，but thepopulation of New York is heterogeneous．The people in Shanghai speak Chinese；the people in New York speak English instead．The cost of living in Shanghai is generally low in comparison with that in New York．While the people in Shanghai take buses or ride bikes to go to work，the people in New York drive cars or take subways to get to work．The people in Shanghai use fans to keep cool，where as the people in New York use air-conditioning．

Both Shanghai and New York are cities of great wealth and poverty．In both cities，there is a great deal of beauty and a great deal of ugliness．Many people in Shanghai are as kind and helpful as those in New York．Conversely，some people in Shanghai are as dangerous as those in New York．In both cities，there are people who work all day and people who work all night．Both cities are never asleep．

To some visitors，both Shanghai and New York are a paradise and a jungle．

24．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）

From the above point-to-point essay，we can see that the similarities and differences of Shanghai and New York are as follows：

①Differences：

a．population（homogeneous S

（heterogeneous NY

b．language （Chinese S

（English NY

C．cost of living（low S

（high NY

d．transportation（buses and bikes S

（cars and subways NY

e．cooling appliances（fans S

（air-conditioning NY

②Similarities：

a．both are most densely populated

b．both are cities of great wealth and poverty

c．both are beautiful and ugly

d．both have kind and helpful people and dangerous people

e．both are never asleep

通过以上比较和对照法的结合使用，作者巧妙地将与主题有关的五个异同点联系在一起，交替进行逐点比较、对照，这使得读者从始至终能够把握比较与对照的线索。而且，作者又在比较与对照的结构上灵活地安排了次序，使对比既鲜明突出，又富有变化；作者还通过不同的连接手段，如并列连词“and，both，as…as”，与转折连词“but，instead，while，whereas，in comparision with”等，使得比较与对照自然流畅，前后连贯。

Writing Assignment for Unit 24

Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay about the similarities and differences between Tom and Jack by using the outline given below．Don't forget to use some of the Comparative and Contrastive words or phrases given in Unit 35．

Tom and Jack are twin brothers．They are similar in some ways；but the ways they spend their own freetime，make decisions and deal with problems are very different．

Similarities：1）appearance

2）eating habits

3）study

Differences：1）ways of spending free time

2）ways of making decisions

3）ways of dealing with problems

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十五单元 如何用定义与分类法推展篇章

  

25．1 Definition and Classification（定义与分类）

A writer often employs more than one method of development in an essay．In order to make it easier or clearer for the reader，the author may，for instance，decide to classify objects，events or terms by retaining a few classes rather than many specific items．Additionally，he may need to define the lables he uses in classifying the subject，especially if the lables are not widely known or are abstract．

在进行定义或分类写作时需注意：1）在进行诠释（定义）时，一定要具体、确切；2）分类时要周密，标准必须对应划一，不能交错重叠。

Model Essay 25-1

Nowadays，more and more people have books in their homes，but few of them really ‘own’the books．In Professor Adler's opinion，there are three kinds of book owners．The first kind of owners have all the standard sets and best-sellers-books that are sold in very large numbers—unread，untouched．（These owner sown only wood pulp and ink，not books．）

Another kind of book owners have a great many books—a few of them read through，most of them dipped into，that is，most ofthe books are only read or studied for a short time or without much attention；but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought．（These persons would probably like to make books their own，but are restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance．）

The final kind of book owners，however，have a few books or many，every one of them do geared（having the corners of the pages bent down with use，like a dog's ears） and dilapidated（broken and old，falling to pieces），shaken and loosened by continual use，marked and scribbled in from front to back．（These men really own books．）

Do you agree with Pr of．Adler？

25．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）

In the above model essay，according to the writer，book owners can be divided into three kinds．They are as follows：

1）Owners with all standard sets and best-sellers—unread，untouched；

2）Owners with a great many books，a few of them read through，most off them dipped into；

3）Owners with a few books or many，every one of them do geared，dilapidated，shaken and loosened…

根据范例所示，我们得知作者将有书的人划为三类，其分类根据是划一的，分出的三类book owners互相排除，没有重叠。作者还通过使用“the first kind…another kind…the final kind…”等这些转换词语，有机地围绕主题“There are three kinds of book owners”，介绍了三种不同类型的“owners”。此外，作者还将一些读者不知或概念不清的词、词组，如“bestsellers”，“dipped into”，“do geared”，“dilapidated”等下了定义，这便达到了使读者完全领会其意的目的。

Writing Assignment for Unit 25

Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay according to the given information below about “Kinds of Library Materials Found in Most Good Libraries”by using the techniques taught in this unit．Do remember to define some of the unknown words．

1）books（on all subjects，in different languages，organized in the card catalog，which can be checked out and borrowed for a month）

2）reference works（including encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，which can only be used in the library itself）

3）periodcals（including magazines，newspapers，pamphlets，which cannot be removed from the library）

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十六单元 如何用过程分析法推展篇章

  

26．1 Process（过程法）

Process descripton is similar to the procedures followed in conducting a scientific experiment．It describes definite steps in a logical order．

In this unit，you will be asked to write a process essay—one that explains clearly how to do or make something．

In almost all the essays we have discussed，the topic sentence has appeared at or near the beginning of the first paragraph．In a well constructed process description，the topic sentence establishes the context of the process developed in succceeding sentences and paragraphs．Notice that in the following model essay the process of making a complaint is divided into three major steps．

Model Essay 26-1

  

How to Make a Complaint

  

Have you ever experienced the unpleasant situations of being a victimized consumer？I think most of you have．In self-defense，I have developed the following consumer's guide to complaining effectively．

The first step is getting organized．I save all sales slips and original boxes so that whenever I complain， I would know the dateof the purchase，the correct price，and the place where the item was purchased．Then I compose my letter of complaint．The next step is to send the complaint to the person who will get results quickly．Usually，I write directly to the president of a company and I always get prompt action．Finally，if I get no response to a written complaint within ten days，I follow through with a personal telephone call．

Therefore，my advice to you is to keep accurate records，and when you have to complain，go right to the top．It has always worked for me．

26．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）

A more visual representation of the model essay process development would be like this：

1）Topic introducer：I have developed the following consumer's guide to complaining effectively．

2）Process steps：a．Keep accurate records

b．When complaining，go right to the top

c．following up with further action

3）Conclusion：Therefore，my advice to you is to……

26．3 Advice on How to Write a Process Essay

1）State your topic in a single clear sentence．

For instance，“Knowing how to prepare for an important exam can lead you to success”or “Growing your own vegetables is easier than you might think”．

2）First make a list of all the steps you are describing．



Take“How to Make a Complaint”for example：

write letter of complaint

follow through with a telephone call if no response

save sales slips and original boxes

send complaint letter directly to president

3）Then number your items in time order or logical order．

①save sales slips and original boxes

② write letter of complaint

③send complaint letter directly to president

④follow through with telephone call if no response

4）Group the item into a minimum of three steps．

For example，you might divide the process into①getting organized；②sending the complaint to president；③following up with further action．

5）Be sure to use transitions，such as，“first，next，also，then，after，now，during，and finally”so that your essay moves smoothly and clearly from one step in the process to the next．

Writing Assignment for Unit 26

Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay on the topic “How to Prepare for an Important Exam”in no less than 100 words．

Remember to write clearly．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十七单元 如何用因果法推展篇章

  

27.1 Cause and Effect（因果法）

The stating of facts and the giving of reasons to explain why and how the facts came about is the basic procedure in essay development by cause and effect．The technique of cause and effect has great flexibility，for the relationships between causes and effects are not always as clear cut as the two terms seem to suggest．Causes may not all carry the same weight，for example．Several contributing causes may be grounded together to form one important cause．There may be one effect to a cause，or there may be many．Effects may be less important than causes，and so on．So you have to be very careful in dealing with cause and effect．

Model Essay 27-1

As it is known to everyone，languages are constantly changing nowadays．There are many reasons why languages change，but the following three major causes may help illustrate the concept．Initially，various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away from one another to establish isolated，independent communities．

Another major cause of language change is the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures，often as a result of militaryconquest．A continuing cause for change is rapidly expanding technology and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into closer contact，with borrowing between language a common phenomenon in the contemporary world．

New established communities，the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures，the rapid development of technology and new systems of communication contribute to language change．So we may say all languages change as the experiences of their speakers change．

27.2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）

The three causes of language change mentioned in the above model essay can be outlined as follows：

effect：Languages are changing constantly．

cause：a．newly established communities

b．the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures

c．the rapid development of technology and new systems of communication

本文作者首先点出主题思想：Languages are contantly changing（表明结果），接着列举了导致发生变化的三大原因，并举例加以说明，使读者对文中的因果关系一清二楚（此篇文章着重强调了语言发展变化的原因）。此外，文中所用的一些转换词语使文章有了明显的连贯性。作者通过“initially…another major cause is…a continuing cause for change is…”这一灵活多变的转换句式巧妙地引出了语言变化的三大原因。因此，文章读起来既连贯一致，又具有较强的说服力。

Writing Assignment 1

Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay by using the cause-effect technique to illustrate why football is becoming more and more popular in recent years．The title and the given information will be of help．

1）It is played world wide；

2）It is an exciting game—both for players and viewers；

3）There are many football fans throughout the world．

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Writing Assignment 2

Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay by using the cause-effect technique to illustrate the causes of global warming．Your composition should be no less than 100 words．Base your ideas on the given outline below．

Recently there has been an increase in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere，which，in turn，causes global warming．

1）increased power generation using coal or oil；

2）increasing numbers of gasoline engines-cars，trucks，etc．；

3）growth of industrial production；

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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第二十八单元 情景作文Situational Composition

  

According to the syllabus and the practice up till now，CET—4composition usually has the following five types：situational composition（情景作文），key words composition（关键词作文），topic sentence composition（主题句作文），title-given composition（给出题目作文） and writing a composition according to tables and graphs（图表作文）．

The examinees are required to follow the directions and develop the composition into three paragraphs to form an essay of no less than 100 words in 30 minutes．The essay should be clear，coherent and grammatically correct．Therefore，from this unit on，we are going to introduce the above five types of compositions respectively．

28．1 Situational Composition

In recent years，situational composition has been frequently used in CET—4．This kind of writing requires students to write according to the given situation（sometimes in Chinese，sometimes in English）；its characteristic is that the main idea and information are all contained in the given situation．

Sample Test Item

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a three-paragraph composition on the topic“My Favourite Programme”．You should write no less than 100 word sand yon should base your composition on the outline（Given in Chinese）below．

1）我最喜爱的电视（或无线电）节目是……

2）这类节目的内容和特点；

3）我喜欢它的原因。

28．2 Analysis and Advice on the Writing

1）Read the directions carefully and make sure you understand them clearly，and try to understand everything that you are required to do；

2）Examine the given situation of each paragraph，then pick out the key words；

e．g．The key words of the above sample are：

①最喜爱的节目②内容，特点③原因

3）Find out the relationship between the title and each paragraph；

In the first paragraph，you write what your favourite programme is；and in the second paragraph，you have to describe the contents and characteristic of your chosen programme；In the end，yon write why yon like this particular programme．

4）You must produce the topic sentence of each paragraph．

e．g．

①My most favourite programme is……

②The programme is interesting as well as；instructive．

③The reason why I like it is that……

Model Essay 28-1

Nowadays radio and TV play a more and more important role in our daily lives．There are many programmes shown every day．Some of them are very good．My most favourite programme is“The Animal World”，which is shown on television every Sunday night．

The programme is interesting as well as instructive．It providesus with natural scenes of the lives of all kinds of wild animals together with the vivid explanations of the narrator．Besides，the pictures are very beautiful and some of them are also very valuable．They contain much information not only about animals，but also about plants．

The reason why I like this programme is that，being born and bred in the city，I have not seen any wild animals，and the programme compensates for this．In addition，it provides me with rich knowledge about nature and the animal world．

Believe it or not，it is really a great joy to watch it．

Writing Assignment for Unit 28

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic“Why Do More And More Women Go In For Sports Nowadays？”You should write no less than 100 words and you should base your composition on the outline（Given in Chinese）below．

1）妇女开始参加越来越多的体育运动；

2）过去妇女不能参加体育运动的原因；

3）为什么会有越来越多的妇女参加。

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U-Boat

第二十九单元 主题句作文Topic Sentence Composition

  

29．1 Introduction

This is the most common composition practised in CET-4．Usually the title and the topic sentences of each paragraph are given．You are required to write exactly according to the title．You must use the given topic sentences．

Sample Test Item：

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about“Television ”in three paragraphs．

You are given the first sentence of each paragraph an dare required to develop the idea in completing the paragraph．Your composition should be about 100words，not including the words given． Remember to write clearly．

  

Television

  

1）Television presents a vivid world in front of us．

2）Television can also play an educational role in our daily life．

3）However，television can also be harmful．

29．2 Analysis and Advice on How to Deal with the Essay

1）Read the directions carefully，and make sure that you understand the requirements；

2）Find out the relationship between the title and the topic sentences．

From the above analysis，we know that we may use the technique of examples to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of television in our daily life．

3）Thoroughly examine the topic sentences，then pick out keywords in each topic sentence；

e．g．The key words of each topic sentence in the above writing are：“vivid world”，“educational role in daily life”，“harmful”．

4）Find out the relationships between the topic sentences；

From the given topic sentences，we can see that the second topic sentence is a further development of the first one．The transitional word“also”shows that the two topic sentences are parellel．So we have to write the advantages of television in the first two paragraphs—in the first paragraph，write“vivid world”，while in the second，“educational role”；In the third topic sentence，the transitional word “However”changes the point of view from positive“vivid”，“educational”to negative“harmful”．Thus，we should write the disadvantages of television in the paragraph．

Model Essay 29-1

  

Television

  

Television presents a vivid world in front of us．On television，we can watch exciting football matches or Olympic marathons．We can“travel”to New York to visit its famous monuments and museums or to London to attend the royal wedding．We can also“go”to a concert with a cup of coffee in one hand． With a TV set，we can take part in many events without leaving the house．

Television can also play an educational role in our daily life．Besides regular courses to TV university students，television also offers various educational programmes for different viewers．Children like“Tan gram”；young people like the“ABC of Computers”；and elderly people like“Life and Health”．Of all the educational programmes，“English on Sunday ”is my favourite．

However，television can also be harmful．It hurts our eyes and can cause nearsightedness．Watching TV too much influences our sleep and work and cuts down children's study time．Furthermore，some TV programmes are ideologically incorrect．In short，we should watch TV selectively and regard it as our servant，not our master．

Writing Assignment for Unit 29

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about “Advertisement” in three paragraphs．You are given the first sentence of eachparagraph and are required to develop the idea in completing the paragraph．Your composition should beabout 100 words，not including the words given．Remember to write clearly．

  

Advertisement

  

1）Advertisement appears everywhere in modern society．

2）Advertisement can be a service to people．

3）However，advertisement also has its problems．

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U-Boat

第三十单元 关键词作文Key Words Composition

  

30．1 Introduction

In this kind of composition，a series of key words are given together with the title．It requires students' imagination and association in connecting the words logically without going astray from the main topic．

Sample Test Item

指示：在30分钟内以“City and Countryside”为题，写一篇120词左右的短文，必需包括下列关键词及表达方式，要求使用正确、恰当。

Key                        Words                      and   Expressions：

similarities               differences                environment

transportation          education                  entertainment

colourful                 boring                       public health servic

reduce                    the                           gap

30．2 Analysis and Advice on How to Achieve Successful Writing

1） Read the directions carefully，and try to understand each word or phrase including the title；

2）Find out the relationship between the key words and the title；

The analysis of the above tells us that we should use the technique of comparison ＆ contrast to write the essay，showing the differences between the city and the country-side．

3）Analyse the key words，then organize your idea logicall；According to the title and the key words，we know that the purpose of the writing is to discuss the similarities and differences of the city and the countryside．You should divide the key words into three paragraphs．In the first paragraph，introduce the main topic— the city and the countryside have both similarities and differences；In the second paragraph，discuss the different fields—environment，education，transportation，entertainment and health service in the city and countryside；In the end，summarize the whole passage．

4）Write an appropriate topic sentence for each paragraph before starting your essay；

a．topic introducer：The city and the countryside are similar in some ways，but there still exist great differences in several areas．

b．topic sentence：Generally speaking，the city and the countryside differ mainly in the fields of environment，transportation，public health service，edtucation and entertainment．

                                       City                             Countryside

environment                   polluted                          fresh，clean

transportation                 convenient，cheap          difficult，costly

public health service        well-equipped                poor-equipped

education                       advanced                        backward

entertainment                  colourful                         boring

c．Conclusion：As we have seen，there are still great differences between the city and the countryside，but further economic development will certainly reduce the gap between the two in the near future．

Model Essay 30-1

The city and the countryside are similar in some ways，but there still exist great differences in several areas．Generally speaking，the city and the countryside differ mainly in the fields of environment，transportation，public health service，education and entertaintment．

First of all，in the city public transport is good and brings people to almost any place in a short time and for little money while travelling in the countryside is difficult and costly．On the other hand，heavy traffic and business activities in the city pollute the environment whereas the air in the countryside is fresh and clean and filled with bird songs．Secondly，people in the city can get advanced education；However students in the countryside can not．What's more，if city dwellers are ill，it is easy for them to get treatment in a well-equipped hospital；On the contrary，the rural population has to travel long distances to see a doctor．Finally，the many stores，cinemas，dancing halls and restaurants make life in the city colorful as opposed to the simple and some people even say boring life in the countryside．

As we have seen，there are still great differences between the city and the countryside，but further economic development will certainly reduce the gap between the two in the near future．

Writing Assignment for Unit 30

指示：（略）Students In Colleges and High Schools

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Key Words and Expressions：

similarities，differences，homework，attend classes，call the parents，under the supervision of，treated as adults，study hard，enjoy sports and games，talk with friends and classmates

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