We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems． Doctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs． In addition， it can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases． It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society．
1．3示范段落分析
这是一个典型的段落，可概括提纲如下：
主题句： We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit，because it causes health problems．
推展句： 1． Doctors say it can be a direc cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs．
2． It can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases．
结论句： It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society．
从以上提纲可见，主题句提出了一个问题： What kind of health problems does cigarette smoking cause？随后的两个推展句回答了这个问题，结论句总结了推展句并再一次强调主题句。
Exercise 1-1
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and find out the topic sentence， the supporting details and the concluding sentence， if there is one．
（1）
The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever before．About a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction,，and the rate at which they are being destroyed has increased． With mammals， for instance， the rate of extinction is now about one species every year； from A． D． 1 to 1800， the ratewas about one species every fifty years． Everywhere， men are trying o solve the problem of preserving wildlife while caring at the same time for the world’s growing population．
The Americans and the British not only speak the same language but also share a large number of social customs．For example， in both America and England， people shake hands when they meet each other for the first time． Also， most English men will open a door for a woman or offer their seat to a woman， and so will most Americans． Promptness is important both in England and in America． That is， if a dinner invitation is for 7 o’clock， the dinner guest either arrives close to that time or calls up to explain his delay．
Birds use many different materials to build nests．Some birds use bits of grass． The tailor-bird of Africa and India uses grass to sew leaves together． Other birds find twigs and pebbles useful．
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and identify the topic sentence． If it is implied， summarize it yourself．
（1）
But no matter what it is called， all polyester has certain good points． It does not wrinkle easily． It dries quickly after it is washed． It holds its shape． It is strong and keeps its colors well．
Black is the colour of mourning． Red symbolizes danger，violence，or bloodshed． If you are afraid， you are yellow． None of these sayings is true outside the English speaking world． In China and Korea， white is the color of mourning． In Russia red stands for beauty and life． In Italy and Germany you are yellow with anger，not with fear．
Our chief source of fresh water is rainfall that collects in lakes，rivers， and reservoirs． Recently， however， we have discovered anew source， aquifers， which are rock formations containing water．Even under deserts， vast aquifers may be waiting to be tapped．Companies drilling for oil in the Middle East have sometimes struck aquifers， which provide unexpected water supplies for arid regions．
Suppose you’re playing a game． You make a silly mistake and lose． Do you become angry？ Or can you laugh at yourself and hope to do better next time？ Suppose you are at a special dinner．You accidentally spill some food．Why keep worrying about how clumsy you look？Why not laugh it off and enjoy yourself anyway？If you can， it’s good sign you've really grown up．
Young men sometimes bring edelweiss back for their girlfriends． The girls think of the flowers as a proof of true love．Mountain climbers， guides， and hunters pick edelweiss too．They wear it on their hats． To them it is a sign of courage and daring．
Iceland’s flag， for instance， stands for features of the land．Red for the fire of Iceland’s volcanoes． White is for ice． Blue is for the mountains． On India’s flag， the blue wheel stands for peace and progress． The white stripe behind it is for truth． The black stripe on the flag of Malawi stands for the Negro people of that African land． The red stripe represents the blood they shed to free themselves from foreign rule．
The one most people are familiar with is the“desk dictionary”，sometimes refered to as general-purpose dictionary． Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary， which is concerned with a word's pronunciation more than with its meaning． A third type is the bilingual dictionary， which lists the words in one language and attempts to give equivalent meaning in another language． Other types include technical dictionaries， special purpose dictionaries，and scholarly dictionaries．作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 18:54 标题: 第四单元 如何写推展句 第四单元 如何写推展句
There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next year．
第二步，以数个理由推展你的主题：
示范段落4-1
① There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next year．② First of all， there is the question of money：Bingstonv's tuition is reasonable and I don’t even have to pay it all at once．③ This is very important， since my father is not a rich man．④ With Bingston's “deferred payment plan，” my father will be able to pay my tuition without too much difficulty．⑤The second resaon is the fine education which I feed will receive there in agriculture， my chosen field．⑥ It is a well-known fact that Bingston hires only the finest professors in its Agriculture Department．⑦ Moreover， the university reqires all agricultural students to get practical experience by working on farms in the areawhile they are still going to school．
4．2示范段落分析
细节： two main reasons：
理由 1—financial consideration②
a． reasonable tuition③
b． deferred payment plan④
理由 2—quality of education⑤
a． fine teachers③
b． practical experience⑦
在两个主要理由之下，作者用更小的细节支持它们。
由此可见，段落的推展依赖于支持主题句的细节（details）。推展段落的方法很多。通常每个段落以一种方法为“支配方法”（ the dominant method），必要时，可运用其它一种或数种方法作为“辅助方法”（ the supporting method）。上面的示范段落使用因果法（cause-and-effect）作为支配方法，分类法（division and classification）作为辅助方法。作者还运用了“重要性排列顺序”（the order of importance）作为安排细节、组织段落的手段。我们将在以下各单元逐个讨论这些方法。
Exercise4-1
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and find out what details the authors use to support their topic sentences．
（1）
Warm water freezes more quickly than cold． Sir Francis Bacon stated that almost four hundred years ago． But few people believedhim—till 1970． In that year， Canadian scientist George Kell proved the English scholar right． Dr． Kell filled an open pail with cold water． He filled another with warm water． He exposed both to the same low temperature． The warm water froze first．
There is a relationship between your blood type and your nationality． Among Europeans and people of European ancestry，about 42 percent have type A while 45 percent have type O．The rarest is type B． Other races have different percentages．For example， some American Indian groups have nearly 100 percent type O．
Although thousands of people have been killed by sudden eruptions， volcanoes also benefit man， Tin， tungsten， gold and other metals have been brought closer to the earth’s surface．Chemicals in the ash have enriched farmland． When solid， lava is agood building material． And in Italy， steam from active volcanoes supplies heat and power to surrounding areas．
The Women’s Movement has had several effects on the English language． It has created Ms， a title for women comparable to the title Mr． for men． The creator of the new title objected to the title Miss and Mrs． once given to women because these titles violated a woman's privacy by indicating her marital status． The use of Ms．now permits women to enjoy the same privacy that men have enjoyed with the use of Mr． Second， the Movement has changed the ending of many compound words from-man to-person．For instance， the word “chairman” has been replaced in many organization with the word “chairperson”， and the word“salesman”has become salesperson． Feminists insist that the substitution of-person for-man makes the position more suitable for members of either sex． Third， the Movement is responsible for new terms．One example is male chauvinist pig， a term applied to a man who refuses to recognize the equality of women． Another example is female chauvinist sow， a phrase used to describe a female who believes that she is superior to males． The most profound effect the Movementhas had on the language is on the third person singular pronoun．Thirty years ago most English instructors forced their students to se he， him， and his for the third person singular when the sex of the person was not known． Thus， students were taught to say，“Everyone has his books”．Today many English teachers permit students to follow the feminist lead and use the masculine and feminine pronouns together． Therefore， constructions such as his or her books are common． Although the Women's Movement may not have yet achieved all of its goals， it has made a mark on the English language．
第一单元曾提到，段落由三个部分组成，最后一部分就是结论句（ the concluding sentence）。结论句通常与主题句一样包含有段落的中心思想，然而所用措辞与主题句不同。
在示范段落 1-1，主题句是： We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems．
结论句是： It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society．
5．2关于写结论句的建议
1）把握主题句的关键词
例如在关于“cigarette smoking”的示范段落 1-1中，中心思想是“the health problems caused by cigarette smoking，关键词是“health problems”。
2）总结细节，回答主题句中隐含的问题。
在上述示范段落中，隐含的问题是“What are the health problems caused by cigarette smoking？”结论句作出的回答是 It is identified as one of the chief cause of death in our society．
3）用不同的措辞表达同一中心思想。
在上述段落中，主题句的关键词是“health problems”，而在结论句中，关键词是“causes of death”。
示范段落5-1
Our neighborhood has been greatly changed． When I last visited there， about half the homes had been torn down to make way for a superhighway． The remaining buildings were plastered with billboards and surrounded by traffic signs and litter． Now the whole neighborhood has become dirty， noisy and full of cars．
5．3示范段落分析
主题句： Our neighborhood has been changed．
主题句关键词： changed
主题句隐含的问题：“How has the neighborhood changed？
细节： 1． a superhighway built—noisy and full of cars
2． full of billboards， traffic signs and litter—dirty
结论句： Now the whole neighborhood has become dirty， noisy andfull of cars．
结论句关键词： dirty，noisy and full of cars
结论句总结了细节并回答了主题句提出的问题。
Exercise 5-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph．Find out the topic sentence and the concluding sentence， and rearrange the details so that the paragraph will make sense．
① In less than three years the farm had gone to pieces．②All the windows had been broken out of the big two-story farm house．③In the front of the house the grass was about three feet tall andthe barn yard was full of weeds instead of pigs squealing to be fed．④There were no more cows to milk or horses to ride．⑤My grandmother's farm has a lot of enjoyable memories for me，but after she died， I left home to join the army and when I returned，I was disappointed at the changes that had taken place．⑥ Paint was peeling off the house and the porch roof was sagging．⑦ Lively as the place had been before my grandmother died， it seemed to have died with her now．⑧This farm had once been lively with the noise of a tractor plowing the land and a dog barking whenever someone came up to the house．
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and underline the topic sentence of each． Then write your own concluding sentence to complete each paragraph．
（1）
Pollution has caused three major problems in the last decades．First， with the development of industry， more and more factories have been built and have sent out smoke and poisonous gases．Thus the air is polluted． The increasing number of cars adds to the air pollution． Second， farmers use chemical fertilizers to increase production and insecticide to kill insects． When rain flows with these poisonous chemicals to rivers， water is polluted． A third formof pollution， noise， is becoming more and more serious． Very loud noises can make people sick， and even drive them mad．
There are three important findings from studies concerned with notetaking． First，notetaking does not interfere with listening and comprehension； in fact， it helps you listen． Second， students who study their lecture notes remember one and a half times more after six weeks than students who do not review． Third， students who take no notes， or do not study their notes， forget approximately 80percent of the lecture by the end of two weeks．From these findings we can conclude that students who take enough notes and then study them， both directly after the lecture and several additional times before an examination， stand a good chance of remembering between90 and 100％ of the material！_______________________________________
段落的完整性指的是段落得以充分展开。作者一俟写好主题句，就应该用细节进行推展，细节越充足越好。例如，你认为“Riding motorcycles is dangerous”，你就应该用你所知道的事实证明这一观点是正确的。你可以使用数字（statistics），列举例子（example），进行描绘（descriptions）等等。
示范段落6-1
Ever since the time of the Greeks， drama has played an important role in man's lives． The Greek tragedies and come dies were a central part of the citizens' lives in ancient Greece． During the Middle Ages， Bible stories were acted out in churches，and wandering companies of players performed in the streets． In modern times， drama is brought directly into people's homes through the magic of television．
6．3示范段落分析
主题句： Ever since the time of the Greeks， drama has played animportant role in man's lives．
① Innovations， whether practical or aesthetic， are often resisted by the general population．② When the early experiments in the field of aviation began their work， there were many who said，“If God had wanted man to fly， he would have given him wings．③The Wright brothers made the first powered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk， North Carolina．④Even today there are many who strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than “splashes of paint and honking horns．”⑤The painter Picasso's well-known masterpiece “The Three Musicians” is done primarily in blues and browns．
6．5段落分析
主题句： Innovations， whether practical or aesthetic， are often resisted by the general population．
推展细节：1． People's objection to the early experiments in the field of aviation．
2． People's objection to modern art and music．
无关细节：1． The Wright brothers' experiment in flight．
Directions： In the folowing sentence grouping， circle the letter in front of any detail that does not support the topic sentence．
Topic Sentence：My main satisfaction in life comes from the people who are part of my life．
Supporting Details：
a． For me a day is good or bad depending on whether or not I havegooten along well with my associates．
b． I am not at all affected by the weather the way some people are．
c． For instance， my father judges his day by whether or not the skyis blue．
d． On a rainy day he is always in a bad mood．
e． What counts for me is to feel human warmth and friendship．
f． My favourite entertainment is to be with one or two intimate friends， sitting in front of a fireplace and sharing intimate recollections．
Exercise 6-2
Directions： Read the following paragraph and identify the irrelevant sentences．
① Different people spend their weekends in different ways．②Some enjoy going to the mountains to hike， ski or just relax．③Water skiing is much more difficult than snow skiing．④Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore activities and to get a suntan．⑤ Some of these people work very hard during the week；others have rather relaxing jobs．⑥ Still others like to relax by staying home and reading a good book．
Topic Sentence：________
Irrelevant Sentences：________________
Exercise 6-3
Directions： List at least five details that might used to develop thegiven topic sentence．
Topic sentence： Day dreaming has always been my favourite．
常用的逻辑顺序有： 1）时间顺序（time order）； 2）空间顺序（space order）（见第12单元）； 3）重要性顺序（order of importance）和 4）熟悉度顺序（order of familiarity）（见第 19单元）。
3）使用连接成分
使用某些连接词和短语（connective word Sand phrases），重复某些关键词（repetition of certain key words），可以大大增加段落的连贯性。某些连接词、短语和关键词可以起粘着物（adhesives）的作用，把各部分连接起来，使句子间的关系更加清楚。连接成分主要有以下三种：
a．连接词语（linking expressions）（见第34单元）
b．代词（pronouns）
代词用于提醒读者注意其先行词，以此把有关的部分连接起来。
c．重复关键词语（repetition of key words）
示范段落7．1
① Until recently daydreaming was viewed as a waste of time．② Or it was considered an unhealthy escape from real life and its duties．③ But now some people are taking a fresh look at daydreaming．④ And it may be that more people are suffering from a lack of daydreaming than are suffering from too much of it．
7．3示范段落分析
顺序：熟悉度和对比关系
连接词语：①“until recently”②“or”③“but”④“and”⑤“then”
代词：① daydreaming—②it—④ it（the second one）
重复关键词：①daydreaming—③daydreaming
④daydreaming
Exercise 7-1
Directions： Arrange the following sentences into a paragraph，using the coherence devices as the hints．
① Clearly， in agriculture and industry， the progress of a country depends on the busy hands of its working people．
② Finally， the establishment of efficient transportation and communication systems， essential services in a modernizing economy， relies heavily on a lab our force of expert craftsmen who take pride in their manual skills．
③ And of course the manufactures as well as the maintenance of machines of all kinds demands a large number of trained mechanics and technicians．
④ To begin with， ploughing fields，planting and harvesting crops， and raising livestock are all important to development and all require people who work with their hands．
⑤ Secondly， mining natural resources， building roads and bridges， and constructing dams for irrigation and electrical power are also important to development and also require people who know how to use their hands skillfully．
⑥ Manual lab our is one of the principal development resources in any industralizing country， as the following examples demonstrate．
Topic Sentence：____________
Details：___________________
Concluding Sentence：____________
Exercise 7-2
Directions： In the following paragraph， find all the words that help the reader move smoothly from one detail to another．write these words in the blanks to the right．
To prepare a nutritious breakfast of cereal and milk you need tofollow only a few simple directions． First， acquire the necessary ingredients and materials： dry cereal of your choice， milk， sugar，fruit， a cereal bowl and a soup spoon． Second， pour the cereal into the bowl until the bowl is half full． Next ，cut up the fruit and arrange it on top of the cereal； then sprinkle sugar over the fruit，if desired． Once you have layered the cereal and fruit in the bowl，you are ready for the milk． Now， pour enough milk into the bowl to just barely cover the cereal and fruit． At last， your breakfast is ready；pick up your spoon and dig in！
事实（a fact）是可以客观证实的事情。例如：“The sunrises in the east．”是个事实。“Oil and water do not mix．”也是个事实。两者都可以通过实验证明是真实的。但是“Eating carrots improves eyesight．”也许是真实也许是不真实的。这不是个事实，是一种看法（opinion）。数据（a statistic）是一个数字事实（a numeral fact），用于给某一主题提供有意义的信息。例如：
There are twenty－five students in the class．”是一个数据。
示范段落8－1
The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of population over the last three centuries．In the two hundred years from 1650 to 1850，world population doubled and reached its first billion．In the next eighty years，it doubled again，and by 1975，it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion．By the year 2000，it is estimated that it will exceed 6 billion and possibly approach 7 billion unless there is a major reduction in birth rates or amajor increase in death rates．
8．2示范段落分析
主题句：The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of population over the last three centuries．
提供信息：
数据1：1650-1850；double，reach 1 billion
数据2：1850－1930；double again，reach 2 billion
数据3：1930－1975；double again，reach 4 billion
数据4：1975－2000；exceed 6 billion，approach 7 billion
示范段落8-2
A snake is a strange animal．It walks on its ribs and it smells with its tongue．Since its teeth are sharp like needles and not good for chewing，it swallows its food whole．
8．3示范段落分析
主题句：A snake is a strange animal．
事实1：walks with its ribs and smells with its tongue
I was seven years old when I first became aware of the terrible power of guilt．For piling our toys into the toy box，Mother had rewarded my brother and me with five shiny pennies each．If I had ten pennies instead of just five，I could have bought a ginger bread man with raisin eyes and sugar－frosted hair．The image danced in my head all day，until，finally，I crept into my brother's room and stole his five pennies．The next morning，as my brother and I were dressing to go to school，I had all ten pennies in the pocket of my coat，cramming one of my father's handkerchiefs on top of them．As my brother and I lined up in front of Mother to be kissed goodbye，she looked at my bulging pocket with amazement．“What on earth do you have in your pocket？she asked．“It's nothing，”I said，as offhandedly as I could．“It's nothing at all．”Bewildered，but toobusy to investigate any further，Mother kissed me goodbye I ran out the door and down our gravel path as fast as my feet could carry me．But the farther from home I got，the more miserable I became．The shiny pennies in my pocket felt oppressively like one－ton boulders．And I was haunted by the idea that I had become a thief．Forgotten was the gingerbread man，for whose sake I had stolen my brother's pennies Finally，unable to bear my horrible feeling of guilt，I ran back home to blurt out my crime to my mother．
9．2示范段落分析
在上面段落中，作者在主题句中阐述了他的观点：I was seven years old when I first became aware of the terrible power of guilt．然后用一件轶事作为支持这一观点的细节，叙述发生了什么事，并说明了他的观点。
9．3关于如何写叙述段落的建议
1）只着重叙述有意义的事件和经历
尽量避免日常琐事和无聊事，只使用那些有助于阐明你的观点的事件和经历。
2）保持始终如一的着眼点
不管叙述是以第一人称或第三人称进行，都要尽量使语言从叙述者的着眼点（point of view）反映叙述者的见解和意向。
A tsunami is a great wave or series of waves．It extends from the surface to the sea floor and moves the entire vertical section of ocean through which it speeds．The greater the ocean depth，the faster the tsunami travels．Speeds of up to 600 mph have been reached．Toward land it slows down as the bottom of the wave drags on the seabed；its crest rises from fifty to a hundred feet or more．
The kitchen was in a mess．Along the left wall were the counter and sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage．On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy clothes．Right next to the door where I was standing，on my right，I saw at able cluttered with old newspapers，an overturned catsup bottle，and a wet，half－eaten hot dog．At the far end of the right wall the refrigerator stood with the door ajar and milk dripping down from the top shelf．It was the messiest kitchen I had ever seen．
Even if you don't know how to cook，you'll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled eggs．You begin by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan over low heat．While the butter is melting，break three eggs into a bowl．Add 1／4teaspoon of salt，1／4 teaspoon of paprika，and three tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix them for about a minute．Pour the mixture into the frying pan，break them into shreds with a fork，or stir them with a spoon until they become solid．When they are cooked，serve them with lightly buttered toast．
11．2示范段落分析
主题句：Even if you don't know how to cook，you'll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled eggs．
步骤1：melt butter
步骤2：break eggs
步骤3：add salt，paprika and milk to the eggs
步骤4：mix them
步骤5：pour into the frying pan and stir them
步骤6：serve with buttered toast
11．3关于如何写过程分析段落的建议
1）按照事物发展过程的顺序解释过程
过程分析通常使用时间顺序法组织段落，因为告诉别人怎样做某件事的最容易的方法是一步一步地分析。
2）提及必要的用具、成分的分量和时机，在适当的地方提醒读者注意容易做错的地方。
3）使用列举符号表示步骤。
下面的列举符号（listing signals）常用于过程描述：
first，second，third，etc．
to begin with，then，finally，etc．
Exercise 11-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，then find out the topic sentence，the listing signals and analyze the steps of the process．
In his will，Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science awards he endowed are to be selected．First，each year the Swedish Academy of Sciences（physics and chemistry）and the Caroline Medical Institute（physiology and medicine）solicit nearly two thousand recommendations from past laureates，university professors and other experts from all over the world．The second step is the review of recommendations received and the selections of preliminary candidates by special committees within the two Swedish institutions．The committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind，”and that no considerations be given to the candidates' nationalities．Next，after lengthy investigation and discussion，the final choices are made for each discipline．Finally，telegrams informing them of their awards are sent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony．
Directions：The sentences below constitute a paragraph on the scientific methods．However，the sentences have been given in a disordered sequence．You should place them in their correct order．
a．Following this method，the reseacher first observe some aspects of nature and then poses a specific question about what he has observed．
b．Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed and conductedto test each contingency．
c．In order to answer this question，potent data are collected．
d．After thorough experimentation，the researcher validates，modifies，or rejects his original hypothesis．
e．Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology，what we now know as the scientific method provides guidelinesf of the systematic acquisition of knowledge．
f．On the basis of these data，a hypothesis is proposed to explain them．
The right order：______________________________
Exercise 11-3
Directions：Write a paragraph about how to prepare a barbecue picnic in the park．
段落内组织细节的最简单最常见的方法是时间顺序法（time order organization）。时间顺序通常用于叙述和过程分析——先发生什么，然后怎样，再然后怎样，等等。正如我们在示范段落9－1和示范段落11－1所看到的一样。其实在你的生活中你经常运用这种方法。你也许曾经告诉你父母在学校里发生的事情。你也许向老师或同学叙述过你是怎样做一个实验的。这些用的都是时间顺序。
12．2关于如何写时间顺序段落的建议
1）写下你要记录的事件或步骤，然后按照时间顺序排列
2）确定你的写作目的，然后写出带有中心思想的主题句
3）从你列举的事件或步骤中删除与中心思想无关的细节
4）使用“first，then，the next step”等等列举符号把细节连接起来
12．3空间顺序法
段落组织的另一方法是空间顺序法（space order organization）。空间顺序主要用于描述，正如我们在示范段落10－1和示范段落10－2所看到的。空间顺序和时间顺序一样，是生活中经常使用的方法。你也许曾在信中向你父母描述你的学院，或向你的同学描述一个风景区。
We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassan's house，perched high up on a hill．Walking up the long driveway，we approached the huge bronze door．A butler was standing in the open doorway，ushering guests into the house．Going in，we passed the oak－pannelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at the ballroom，where the reception was being held．Under three sparkling chandeliers，more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne，hors d'oeuvres and good conversation．
13．1举例法
举例法（examples）也是推展主题的主要方法。举例法有两种形式，一种是首先陈述自己的观点，然后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点；另一种是先举一个很长的例子，然后转入例子所要阐明的观点。
读下面段落：
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is uncertain，and when the risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to the one taking it．The courageous person fears no one and nothing．He or she is undaunted by danger or peril．He or she will venture boldly into an uncertain situation，hardly giving a thought to the harm or consequences which may result to his or her person．
以上段落的缺点是乏味、含糊，不能向读者表达作者关于“courage”的看法。请看下面重写后的段落。
示范段落13-1
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is uncertain，and when the risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to the one taking it．For example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelve－year－old girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the burning bedroom，and dragged him down the stairs and outside to safety．This was arousing display of courage．The girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered her sleeping brother．Disregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him．
13．2示范段落分析
较之上一段落，这个段落更能清晰地传达作者关于“courage”的观点。首先，作者概述什么是“courage”，然后举出一个女孩子从燃烧着的房子中把弟弟救出来的例子阐明这一观点。
13．2关于写举例法段落的建议
1）选择恰当的例子
所选的例子应该能够恰当地支持自己的观点。
2）要表明你的例子所要阐明的观点
大多数作者使用“for example”等短语引出例子。其它常用的短语有：“as an example”，“to illustrate”，“for instance”，“an illustration of it”，“a case in point”（见第34单元）。
3）不要滥用例子
Exercise 13-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence，and find out what example the writer uses to illustrate his point．
Despite her wealth，Madame Rubinstein had a mania for saving money．French President Georges Pompidou once rented a Paris apartment from her．She noticed that he left the building at exactlly8：50 every morning．Madame began ordering her daily taxi for 8：45 so that she could save on cab fare by following Pompidou's motorcycle escort through the heavy Paris traffic．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Example：__________________________________________________
Exercise 13-2
Directions：Choose one of the given topic sentences and use an example to develop the point．
（1）
Doing part－time jobs helps increase our experience．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
（2）
You may have heard the old saying，“Self-help is the best help．”The truth of it has been proved by the successful lives of many great men and women．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 18:58 标题: 第十四单元 推展段落方法之六 第十四单元 推展段落方法之六
——比较与对比法
14．1比较与对比法
有时为了说明某一事物，需要与其他事物联系起来才能阐述清楚，这就是对比或比较（comparison or contrast）。比较方法和对比方法基本一致，不同的是比较强调两事物如何相同，对比强调两事物如何不同。
示范段落14－1
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs．People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life．But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more low－key than in the city．If city dwellers want to see trees and grass，they must go to one of the public parks．On the other hand，the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs，and each house has its own grassy yard．A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment，but people living in suburan areas must go into the city for entertainment．
示范段落14－2
The llama is a member of the camel family．Like the camel，the llama can live for weeks without a drink of water．Both get enough moisture from the grass，shrubs，and other plants they eat．But unlike the camel，the llama has no hump on its back．
A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．It is of cylindrical shape and can be held between the first two fingers of the hand．It is about 6 inches long and 1／4 inch wide．At the end there is usually an eraser attached to the pencil by a surrounding metal band．Lead is the material which is used in making the marks on the paper，and a sharpener is needed to keep the pencil in good working order．Pencils are made of various kinds of wood．
15．2示范段落分析
主题句：A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．细节：shape，material
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence and find out what method（s）are used to expand the defintion．
Chemistry is that branch of science which has the task of investigating the materials out of which the universe is made．It is not concerned with the forms into which they may be fashioned．Such objects as chairs，tables，vases，bottles，or wires are of no significance in chemistry；but such substances as glass，wool，iron，sulfur，and clay，as the materials out of which they are made，are what it studies．Chemistry is concerned not only with the composition of such substances，but also with their inner structure．
Directions：The definition of“an ice－box”can be，“An ice－box is an appliance for storing food at low temperature．”Now use the method of description to expand the definition．
An ice－box is an appliance for storing food at low temperature．
分类法（division and classification）是把一事物拆成几部分，表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常，作者以总类开头，然后把总类拆开，——列举部分或全部分类。
示范段落16－1
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library．First，there are books on all subjects，both in English and in many other languages．These books are organized according to subject，title，and author in a central filing system called card catalog．Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks．Second，there are reference materials，which include encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，etc．and which generally must be used in the library itself．Third，there are periodicals—magazines，news－papers，pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in racks or which have been micro－filmed to conserve space．Like reference works，periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library．
16．2示范段落分析
主题句：There are three basic kinds of materials that can be foundin any good library．
分类词（Classifier）：kinds
列举词（Listing Signals）：first，second，third
分类（Categories）：1．books on all subjects
2．reference materials
3．periodicals
16．2关于如何写分类段落的建议
1）依据一个原则分类
把一事物分类后，要自始至终遵循同一分类原则。在示范段落16－1，分类原则是“the kinds of materials”。
2）所分类别必须互不包容
在示范段落16－1中，属于第一类的“books on all subjects”与属于第二类的“reference materials”界线分明．反之亦然。
3）分类必须完整
如果所分类别不完整，所作的分类则徒劳无益。如上例，所分三种“materials”应包括“all materials in a library”。
Directions：Read the following paragraph，find out the topic sentence，the classifier，and the categories．
There are three fundamental human body types—endomorphic，mesomorphic，and ectomorphic．The extreme endomorph combines heavy fat distribution and lack of bony angularity with around face，short neck，wide hips，and heavy limbs．The extreme mesomorph has a solid chest，slender waist，long torso，and relatively short，powerful arms and legs．Extreme ectomorphs are characterized by their slender bodies，short trunks，long arms and legs，long narrow hands and feet，and lack of fat．
Many people are worried about what television has done to the generation of American children who have grown up watching it．For one thing，recent studies tend to show that TV stifles creative imagination．Some teachers feel that television has taken away the child's ability to form mental pictures in his own mind，resulting in children who cannot understand a simple story without visualillustrations．Secondly，too much TV too early tends to cause children to withdraw from real life experiences．Thus，they grow up to be passive spectators who can only respond to action，but not initiate it．The third area for concern is the serious complaint frequently made by elementary school teachers that children exhibit a low tolerance for the frustrations of learning．Because they have been conditioned to see all problems resolved in 30 or 60 minutes on TV，they are quickly discouraged by any activity that promises less than instant gratification．But perhaps the most serious result is the impact of television violence on children，who have come to regard it as an everyday thing．Not only does this increase their tolerance of violent behavior in others，but most authorities now concede that under certain conditions，some children will imitate anti－ social acts that they witness on television．
17．3示范段落分析
主题句：Many people are worried about what television has done to the generation of American children who have grown up watching it．
因果模式（cause and effect pattern）：
原因（cause）：television
结果（effects）：1．TV stifles creative imagination．
2．TV causes children to withdraw from real life experiences．
3．Children exhibit a low tolerance for the frustrations of learning．
4．Children have come to regard violence as an everyday thing．
17．4关于如何写因果法段落的建议
1）段落一开始就表明目的
在段落一开始就陈述你所关心的原因或结果是什么。例如，在示范段落17－1，主题句就把目的限定为分析“the effects of television on American children”。
2）选择主题要适中
选择太大的主题会给你带来麻烦。因此，记住要选择你可以驾驭的主题。例如：“effects of television”作为主题会太大，难以下笔。然而把它限制为“effects on American children”就容易多了（第18单元继续讨论因果法）。
Exercise17－1
Directions：Write a paragraph，analyzing the effects of students cheating on exams．
Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．Foremost is，that air and water quality in many cities have improved as a result of the 1970's pollution control efforts．Meanwhile，rural areas have been built up，leaving many animals on the edges of suburbs．In addition，urban wildlife refuges have been created．The Greater London Council last year spent ＄750,000 to buy land and build 10 permanent wildlife refuges in the city．As a result，many big birds are now living in the city．For peregrine falcons cities are actully safer than rural cliff dwellings．By 1970 the birds had died out east of the Mississippi because DDT had made their eggs too thin to support life．That year，scientist Tom Cade of Cornell University began raising the birds for release in cities，for cities afforded plentyof food．
18．2 示范段落分析
主题句：Several changes have brought wild animals to the cities．
因果模式（Cause-effect Pattern）：
结果（Effect）：wild animals back to the cities
原因（Causes）： 1．Air and water quality have improved．
2．Rural areas have been built up．
3．Urban wildlife refuges have been created．
18．3 因—果—因法
有时候，一个原因也许会引起一个结果，这个结果又成为另一个结果的原因，如示范段落18-2所示。
示范段落18-2
For some time now，medical scientists have noted an alarming increase in disease of the heart and circulation among people who smoke cigarettes．It has been found that the presence of nicotine in the blood stream causes blood vessels to contract，thus slowing circulation，which eventully leads to hardening of the arteries．As the arteries stiffen，less blood reaches the brain，and the end result of this slowdown is the cerebral hemorrhage，commonly referred to as a“stroke”．In addition，nicotine in the bloodstream reduces the ability of the hemoglobin to release oxygen，resulting in shortness of breath．The lack of oxygen forces the heart to beat faster—that is，the pulse rate increases—and in turn accelerates the risk of heart attack．
Directions：Read the following paragraph of cause and effect，adding suitable listing signals and linking expressions．
There are many reasons why languages change．____，
various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away from one another to establish isolated，independent communities．________is the independence of and interaction with foreign cultures，often as a result of military conquest．________is rapidly expanding technologe and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into close contact，with borrowing between languages a common phenomenon in the contemporary world．All languages change as the experiences of their speakers change．
Exercise 18-2
Directions：Write a paragraph analyzing the causes of students cheating on exams．
前面我们已经讨论了组织段落的两种方法——时间顺序法（time-order）和空间顺序法（space-order）。组织段落的第三种方法是根据重要性排列的方法（to organize details according to their order of importance）。作者使用这种方法的依据是他认为所选用的细节应如何加以强调。
Directions：Read the following two paragraphs and analyze their orders of organization．
（1）
Why are young people so enthusiastic about computers？It is mainly because they find that the computer has a large number of desirable properties．First，it's not terribly demanding，and it does what it is told．Second，it's easier to be a friend to a computer，for it won't make fun of you．Nor does it scold you or talk back．Third，the computer is more interesting than any other object．Like people，it is interactive．When you ask it a question，it gives you an answer．And because it stores great quantities of information，it can oftenanswer more questions，more accurately，than human friends．Finally，by programing a computer，a youngster can create a world of his own．
Order of Organization：________________________________________
（2）
People travel because travel benefits them in a number of ways．First，it enables people to derive much pleasure from seeing sight sand snapping pictures．Second，it provides an effective way to get their mind off their work．It relieves them from strain and makes them thoroughly relaxed and ready to resume their work with rennewed efforts．Third，it offers an opportunity to visit old friends and make new friends，too．Finally，it allows people to see new customs，learn new things，gain new experience and enables them to come back with broader mind．
到目前为止，我们讨论了九种推展段落方法——1）事实数据法（facts and statistics）；2）叙述法（narration）；3）描述法（description）；4）过程分析法（process analysis）；5）定义法（definition）；6）举例法（examples）；7）比较对比法（comparison and contrast）；8）分类法（division and classification）；9）因果法（cause and effect）。我们还讨论了四种组织段落的方法：1）时间顺序法（time order）；2）空间顺序法（space order）；3）重要性顺序法（order of importance）；4）熟悉度顺序法（order of familiarity）。此外，我们还谈及一个好的段落的三个特征：1）完整性（completeness）；2）统一性（unity）；3）连贯性（coherence）。
Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．One of the oddest incidents occurred on January 16，1900．An angry workman broke a crocodile mummy into pieces．He wassurprised to find that the mummy had been wrapped in sheets of papyrus，the reed paper of ancient Egypt．And on the papyrus there was writing．
20．2示范段落分析
主题句：Man's knowledge of the past has sometimes been gained in odd ways．
组织段落顺序：Time order
支配推展方法：Example
辅助推展方法：Narration
示范段落20-2
There are two kinds of memory：short-term and long-term．Information stored in the long-term memory can be recalled at a later time when it is needed．The information may be kept for days or weeks．In contrast，information stored in the short-term memory is kept for only a few minutes，usually by repeating the in formation over and over．
20．3示范段落分析
主题句：There are two kinds of memory：short-term and long-term．
组织段落方法：Order of Familiarity
支配推展方法：Division and Classification
辅助推展方法：Description，Contrast
Exercise 20-1
Directions：Write a paragraph on population increase，using cause and effect as the dominant method，and examples，facts or statistics as the supporting methods．
Why has the world population been increasing so rapidly in the last decades？_____________________________________________________
①To be successful in a job interview，the applicant should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities．②In as much as the first and often lasting impression of a person isdetermined by the clothes one wears，the job applicant should take care to appear well-groomed and modestly dressed，avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire．③Besides care for personal appearance，one should pay close attention to one's manner of speaking，which should be neither showy nor too familiar but rather straightforward，grammatically accurate，and friendly．④In addition，one should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirements of the position for which one is applying in relation to one's own professional experience and interests．⑤And finally，there ally impressive applicant must convey a sense of self-confidence and enthusiasm for work，factors which all interviewers value highly．⑥The job seeker who displays these characteristics，with just a little luck，will certainly succeed in a typical personal interview．
Model Essay 21-2
①To be successful in a job interview，you should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities．You need to create a good image in the limited time available，usually from 30 to 45 minutes．Furthermore，you must make a positive impression which the interviewer will remember while he interviews other applicants．A tall times，you should present your most attractive qualities during an interview．
②You should，for example，take care to appear well-groomed and modestly dressed，avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire．On the positive side，clothes may be a good leveller，putting you on a par with other applicants and requiring the interviewer to consider more important qualifications．On the otherhand，clothes which are too informal may convey the impression that you are not serious about the job or that you may be casual about your work as well as your dress．Clothes which are too elaborate，too colorful，or too expensive suggest that you do not understand what behavior is appropriate for the job or that you are snobbish or frivolous．The right clothes worn at the right time，however，gain the respect of the interviewer and his confidence in your judgement．It may not be true that“clothes make the man，”but the first and often lasting impression of you is determined by the clothes you wear．
③Besides care for personal appearance，you should pay close attention to your manner of speaking．Since speech is a reflection of personality，you should reflect confidence by speaking in a clear voice，loud enough to be heard without being aggressive or overpowering．Your speech should not call attention to itself，but it should reveal the individuality and ability of the speaker．Obviously，you must speak without grammatical errors or dialect differences for which you might be criticised or which might cause embrarrassment to the employer．Although there are cultural differences with respect to the formality of the job interview，your speech must show you to be a friendly and pleasant person．
④Speaking without a subject worth talking about will not impress anyone．You should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirements of the position for which you are applying in relation to your own professional experiences and interests．Knowing something about the position enables you to ask intelligent questions about the work and requirements for the job．The interviewer candecide from the questions asked whether you are genuinely interested or knowledgeable．You can comment on your own training，experience，and other qualifications in relation to the specific tasks of the position．the interviewer can determine whether your background and potential seem to fit the position．The position for which you are applying is not only the safest topic for discussion，it is essential that you demonsrtate your understanding of the requirements and your abilities in meeting these requirements．
⑤Finally，to be really impressive you must convey a sense of self-confidence and enthusiasm for work．As already indicated，you demonstrate self-confidence by your manner of speech and dress．You further show it by being prepared for the interview with information and questions about the position．In addition，the way you enter the room，sit，look at the interviewer，and fill out application forms and other papers may express self-confidence．The eagerness with which you discuss the job rather than the salary may reveal your enthusiasm for work．You may express it also through your questions and comments about working conditions and facilities．And，Of course，your previous experience and success will tell the interviewer about your enthusiasm for work．Both of these qualities—self-confidence and enthusiasm for work—are valued highly by all interviewers．
⑥The appropriately dressed job applicant indicates his sound judgement．His manner of speaking suggests his friendliness and competence．His curiosity and information about the position he is seeking demonstrate his sincerity and potential in the job．He exhibits self-confidence through his knowledge，and he shows hisenthusiasm for work．If you display these characteristics，with just a little luck，you will certainly succeed in the typical personal interview．
Directions：Find the key ideas in each of the sentences of model paragraph and write short answers for each on the line below．You may use words from the sentence or words of your own to express the key ideas．The first one will serve as an example for you．
e．g．successful interview requires certain qualities
Directions：Read the model essay again，try to observe the plan of organization of the essay，and write out its organization．The organization of the model essay is：____________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:01 标题: 第二十二单元 篇章的统一性、支撑性、连贯性和一致性 第二十二单元 篇章的统一性、支撑性、连贯性和一致性
只有通过具体的实例、事实、细节或事件对篇章中的主题思想加以充实和发挥，才能使文章的主题更加明确具体。例如：在Unit 21-2范文中的四个Supporting Paragraphs（SP1，SP2，SP3，SP4）都是通过具体的实例、细节，来进一步明确本篇文章的主题思想—To be successful in a job interview，you must demonstrate cetain personal and professional qualities．
22．3 篇章的连贯性（Coherence of an Essay）
篇章的连贯性是指句子与句子，段落与段落的排列组合必须合乎逻辑（意连）；句子间以及段落间的过渡必须自然流畅（形连）。篇章的意连有三种：a．Time Order or Chronological Order（时间顺序）；b．Space or Spatial Order（位置或空间顺序）；c．Logical Order（逻辑顺序）。其中，逻辑顺序又可分为三种：
Directions：Two versions of a passage are given below．Both are unified，supported，and organized，but one version communicates more clearly and effectively its ideas than the other．Which one，and why？
There are times when people are so tired that they fall asleep almost anywhere．For example，there is a lot of sleeping on the bus or train on the way home from work in the evenings．A man will be reading the newspaper，and seconds later it appears as if he is trying to eat it．Or he will fall asleep on the shoulder of the stranger sitting next to him．
Another place where unplanned naps go on is in the lecture hall．In some classes，a student will start snoring so loudly that the professor has to ask another student to shake the sleeper awake．Amore embarrassing situation occurs when a student leans on one elbow and starts drifting off to sleep．The weight of the head pushes the elbow off the desk，and this momentum carries the rest of the body along．The student wakes up on the floor with no memory of how he got there．
The worst time to fall asleep is when driving a car．Police reports are full of accidents that occur when people fall asleep at the wheel and go off the road．If the drivers are very lucky，they are not seriously hurt．One woman's car，for instance，went into the river．She woke up in four feet of water and thought it was raining．When people are really tired，nothing will stop them from falling asleep—no matter where they are．
（1）There are times when people are so tired that they fall asleep almost anywhere．（2）For example，on the bus or train on the way home from work．（3）A man will be reading the newspaper，seconds later it appears as if he is trying to eat it．（4）Or he will fall asleep on the shoulder of the stranger sitting next to him．
（5）Another place where unplanned naps go on are in the lecture hall．（6）In some classes，a student will start snoring so loudly that the professor has to ask another student to shake the sleeper awake．（7）A more embarrassing situation occurs when a student leans on one elbow and starting to drift off to sleep．（8）The weight of the head push the elbow off the desk，and this momentum carries the rest of the body along．（9）The student wakes up on the floor with no memory of how he got there．
（10）The worst time to fall asleep is when driving a car．（11）Police reports are full of accidents that occur when people conk out and go off the road．（12）If the drivers are lucky they are not seriously hurt．（13）One womans car，for instance went into the river．（14）She woke up in four feet of water．（15）And thought it was raining．（16）When people are really tired，nothing will stopthem from falling asleep—no matter where they are．
Exercise 22-2
Directions：Compare the second version with the first one，and choose the correct answers from the following choices（The exercise is mainly for sentence skills）
1．In sentence（2）， 2．In sentence（3），
a．missing comma a．run-on
b．missing apostrophe b．sentence fragment
c．sentence fragment c．mistake in subject-verb agreement
d．dangling modifier d．irregular verb mistake
3．In sentence（5）， 4．In sentence（7），
a．sentence fragment a．misplaced modifier
b．spelling error b．dangling modifier
c．run-on c．mistake in parallelism
d．mistake in subject-verb d．run-on
agreement
5．In sentenc（8）， 6．In sentence（11），
a．nonstandard English verb a．irregular verb mistake
b．run-on b．sentence fragment
c．comma mistake c．slang phrase
d．missing capital letter d．mistake in subject-verb agreement
7．In sentence（12）， 8．In sentence（13），
a．missing apostrophe a．mistake in parallelism
b．missing comma b．irregular verb mistake
c．irregular verb mistake c．missing apostrophe
d．sentence fragment d．missing capital letter
9．In sentence（13）， 10．In sentence（15），
a．missing comma around an a．missing quotation mark
interrupter
b．dangling modifier b．irregular verb mistake
c．run-on c．sentence fragment
d．cliché d．mistake in pronoun point of view作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:01 标题: 第二十三单元 如何用举例法推展篇章 第二十三单元 如何用举例法推展篇章
My father is easily angered by normal，everyday mistake．One day my father told me to wash the car and cut the grass．I did not hear exactly what he said，and so I asked him to repeat it．Then he went into a hysterical mood and shouted，“Can't you hear？”
Another time he asked my mother to go to the store and buy groceries with a fifty-dollar bill，and told her to spend no more than twenty dollars．She spent twenty-two dollars．As soon as he found out，he immediately grabbed the change from her and shouted that she was never to do any errands for him again．He did not speak to her for the rest of the day．
My father also gives my older brothers a hard time with his irritable moods．One day，he told them to be home from their dates by midnight；they came home at 12∶15．He informed them that they were grounded for three weeks．
To my father，making a simple mistake is like commiting a severe crime．
2）My Generous Grandfather
My grandfather is the most generous person I know．He has given up a life of his own in order to give his grandchildren everything they want．Not only has he given up many years of his life to raise his children properly，but he is now sacrificing many more years to his grandchildren．
His generosity is also evident in his relationship with his colleagues，neighbors and friends．He has been responsible for many good deeds and has always been there to help all the people around him in times of trouble．Everyone knows that he will gladly lend a helping hand．
He is so generous that you almost have to feel sorry for him．If one day he suddenly became selfish，it would be earthshaking．That's my grandfather．
23．3 Analysis of the Two Model Essays（两例范文的分析）
The first passage is more effective，for it offers specific examples that show us the father in action．We see for ourselves why the writer describes the father as bad-tempered．It also uses transitional phrases or sentence to organize the passange more clearly and logically．Using“one day”，the writer introduces us the first example of his father's hot temper；“Another time”indicates the second example and the transitional sentence“My father also gives my older brothers a hard time with his irritable moods”indicates another example will follow．It is the supporting examples and the transitional devices that make the passage more effective and coherent．
The second writer，on the other hand，gives us no specific evidence．The writer tells us repeatedly that the grandfather is generous but never shows us examples of that generosity．Just how，for instance，did the grandfather sacrifice his life for his children and grandchildren？Did the grandfather hold two jobs so that his soncould go to college，or so that his daughter could finish her education？Does he give up time with his wife and friends to travel every day to his daughter's house to baby sit，go to the store，and help with the dishes？We need to judge for ourselves whether the writer is making a valid point about the grandfather，but with out specific details we cannot do so．In fact，we have almost no picture of the grandfather at all．
Writing Assignment for Unit 23
Directions：Write a short passage of the title“My Sweet-Tempered Mother according to the given topic sentence．
Remember to provide specific details to illustrate your point and use transitional words or phrases to make your writing more clearly and coherently．You may write your passage on the good qualities of a person by using some of the descriptive words listed below．They are only suggestions，you can write about other qualities as well．
honest hardworking supportive modest
open-minded considerate independent good-humoured
cooperative energetic disciplined patient
generous trustworthy neat courageous
ambitious soft-hearted reliable unpretentious
My mother is the most sweet-tempered person I know．
Often we may want to describe several aspects of two subjects that have both similarities and differences．When we compare two things，we show how they are similar；when we contrast two things，we show how they are different．We may compare or contrast two schools，two cars，two friends，two jobs，two cities，etc．．For this purpose，we may employ the combined techniques of comparison and contrast．In writing the essay，you should always bear two important decisions in mind：①Whether you are to do a comparison，a contrast，or a mixture，or②Whether you are to use an item-to-item（逐事比较）or point-to-point（逐点比较）method of development（both have been explained and illustrated in Unit14）
Model Essay 24-1
Shanghai and New York are two of the biggest cities in the world．They are different in some ways，but they are similar in some other ways．
Shanghai is one of the most densely populated cities in Asia，and New York is one of the most densely populated cities in North America．The population of Shanghai is homogenous，but thepopulation of New York is heterogeneous．The people in Shanghai speak Chinese；the people in New York speak English instead．The cost of living in Shanghai is generally low in comparison with that in New York．While the people in Shanghai take buses or ride bikes to go to work，the people in New York drive cars or take subways to get to work．The people in Shanghai use fans to keep cool，where as the people in New York use air-conditioning．
Both Shanghai and New York are cities of great wealth and poverty．In both cities，there is a great deal of beauty and a great deal of ugliness．Many people in Shanghai are as kind and helpful as those in New York．Conversely，some people in Shanghai are as dangerous as those in New York．In both cities，there are people who work all day and people who work all night．Both cities are never asleep．
To some visitors，both Shanghai and New York are a paradise and a jungle．
24．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）
From the above point-to-point essay，we can see that the similarities and differences of Shanghai and New York are as follows：
①Differences：
a．population（homogeneous S
（heterogeneous NY
b．language （Chinese S
（English NY
C．cost of living（low S
（high NY
d．transportation（buses and bikes S
（cars and subways NY
e．cooling appliances（fans S
（air-conditioning NY
②Similarities：
a．both are most densely populated
b．both are cities of great wealth and poverty
c．both are beautiful and ugly
d．both have kind and helpful people and dangerous people
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay about the similarities and differences between Tom and Jack by using the outline given below．Don't forget to use some of the Comparative and Contrastive words or phrases given in Unit 35．
Tom and Jack are twin brothers．They are similar in some ways；but the ways they spend their own freetime，make decisions and deal with problems are very different．
A writer often employs more than one method of development in an essay．In order to make it easier or clearer for the reader，the author may，for instance，decide to classify objects，events or terms by retaining a few classes rather than many specific items．Additionally，he may need to define the lables he uses in classifying the subject，especially if the lables are not widely known or are abstract．
Nowadays，more and more people have books in their homes，but few of them really ‘own’the books．In Professor Adler's opinion，there are three kinds of book owners．The first kind of owners have all the standard sets and best-sellers-books that are sold in very large numbers—unread，untouched．（These owner sown only wood pulp and ink，not books．）
Another kind of book owners have a great many books—a few of them read through，most of them dipped into，that is，most ofthe books are only read or studied for a short time or without much attention；but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought．（These persons would probably like to make books their own，but are restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance．）
The final kind of book owners，however，have a few books or many，every one of them do geared（having the corners of the pages bent down with use，like a dog's ears） and dilapidated（broken and old，falling to pieces），shaken and loosened by continual use，marked and scribbled in from front to back．（These men really own books．）
Do you agree with Pr of．Adler？
25．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）
In the above model essay，according to the writer，book owners can be divided into three kinds．They are as follows：
1）Owners with all standard sets and best-sellers—unread，untouched；
2）Owners with a great many books，a few of them read through，most off them dipped into；
3）Owners with a few books or many，every one of them do geared，dilapidated，shaken and loosened…
根据范例所示，我们得知作者将有书的人划为三类，其分类根据是划一的，分出的三类book owners互相排除，没有重叠。作者还通过使用“the first kind…another kind…the final kind…”等这些转换词语，有机地围绕主题“There are three kinds of book owners”，介绍了三种不同类型的“owners”。此外，作者还将一些读者不知或概念不清的词、词组，如“bestsellers”，“dipped into”，“do geared”，“dilapidated”等下了定义，这便达到了使读者完全领会其意的目的。
Writing Assignment for Unit 25
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay according to the given information below about “Kinds of Library Materials Found in Most Good Libraries”by using the techniques taught in this unit．Do remember to define some of the unknown words．
1）books（on all subjects，in different languages，organized in the card catalog，which can be checked out and borrowed for a month）
2）reference works（including encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，which can only be used in the library itself）
3）periodcals（including magazines，newspapers，pamphlets，which cannot be removed from the library）
Process descripton is similar to the procedures followed in conducting a scientific experiment．It describes definite steps in a logical order．
In this unit，you will be asked to write a process essay—one that explains clearly how to do or make something．
In almost all the essays we have discussed，the topic sentence has appeared at or near the beginning of the first paragraph．In a well constructed process description，the topic sentence establishes the context of the process developed in succceeding sentences and paragraphs．Notice that in the following model essay the process of making a complaint is divided into three major steps．
Model Essay 26-1
How to Make a Complaint
Have you ever experienced the unpleasant situations of being a victimized consumer？I think most of you have．In self-defense，I have developed the following consumer's guide to complaining effectively．
The first step is getting organized．I save all sales slips and original boxes so that whenever I complain， I would know the dateof the purchase，the correct price，and the place where the item was purchased．Then I compose my letter of complaint．The next step is to send the complaint to the person who will get results quickly．Usually，I write directly to the president of a company and I always get prompt action．Finally，if I get no response to a written complaint within ten days，I follow through with a personal telephone call．
Therefore，my advice to you is to keep accurate records，and when you have to complain，go right to the top．It has always worked for me．
26．2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）
A more visual representation of the model essay process development would be like this：
1）Topic introducer：I have developed the following consumer's guide to complaining effectively．
2）Process steps：a．Keep accurate records
b．When complaining，go right to the top
c．following up with further action
3）Conclusion：Therefore，my advice to you is to……
26．3 Advice on How to Write a Process Essay
1）State your topic in a single clear sentence．
For instance，“Knowing how to prepare for an important exam can lead you to success”or “Growing your own vegetables is easier than you might think”．
2）First make a list of all the steps you are describing．
Take“How to Make a Complaint”for example：
write letter of complaint
follow through with a telephone call if no response
save sales slips and original boxes
send complaint letter directly to president
3）Then number your items in time order or logical order．
①save sales slips and original boxes
② write letter of complaint
③send complaint letter directly to president
④follow through with telephone call if no response
4）Group the item into a minimum of three steps．
For example，you might divide the process into①getting organized；②sending the complaint to president；③following up with further action．
5）Be sure to use transitions，such as，“first，next，also，then，after，now，during，and finally”so that your essay moves smoothly and clearly from one step in the process to the next．
Writing Assignment for Unit 26
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay on the topic “How to Prepare for an Important Exam”in no less than 100 words．
The stating of facts and the giving of reasons to explain why and how the facts came about is the basic procedure in essay development by cause and effect．The technique of cause and effect has great flexibility，for the relationships between causes and effects are not always as clear cut as the two terms seem to suggest．Causes may not all carry the same weight，for example．Several contributing causes may be grounded together to form one important cause．There may be one effect to a cause，or there may be many．Effects may be less important than causes，and so on．So you have to be very careful in dealing with cause and effect．
Model Essay 27-1
As it is known to everyone，languages are constantly changing nowadays．There are many reasons why languages change，but the following three major causes may help illustrate the concept．Initially，various languages that started from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after groups of speakers drifted away from one another to establish isolated，independent communities．
Another major cause of language change is the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures，often as a result of militaryconquest．A continuing cause for change is rapidly expanding technology and new systems of communication that bring all cultures and languages into closer contact，with borrowing between language a common phenomenon in the contemporary world．
New established communities，the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures，the rapid development of technology and new systems of communication contribute to language change．So we may say all languages change as the experiences of their speakers change．
27.2 Analysis of the Model Essay（范文分析）
The three causes of language change mentioned in the above model essay can be outlined as follows：
effect：Languages are changing constantly．
cause：a．newly established communities
b．the influence of and interaction with foreign cultures
c．the rapid development of technology and new systems of communication
本文作者首先点出主题思想：Languages are contantly changing（表明结果），接着列举了导致发生变化的三大原因，并举例加以说明，使读者对文中的因果关系一清二楚（此篇文章着重强调了语言发展变化的原因）。此外，文中所用的一些转换词语使文章有了明显的连贯性。作者通过“initially…another major cause is…a continuing cause for change is…”这一灵活多变的转换句式巧妙地引出了语言变化的三大原因。因此，文章读起来既连贯一致，又具有较强的说服力。
Writing Assignment 1
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay by using the cause-effect technique to illustrate why football is becoming more and more popular in recent years．The title and the given information will be of help．
1）It is played world wide；
2）It is an exciting game—both for players and viewers；
3）There are many football fans throughout the world．
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay by using the cause-effect technique to illustrate the causes of global warming．Your composition should be no less than 100 words．Base your ideas on the given outline below．
Recently there has been an increase in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere，which，in turn，causes global warming．
1）increased power generation using coal or oil；
2）increasing numbers of gasoline engines-cars，trucks，etc．；
According to the syllabus and the practice up till now，CET—4composition usually has the following five types：situational composition（情景作文），key words composition（关键词作文），topic sentence composition（主题句作文），title-given composition（给出题目作文） and writing a composition according to tables and graphs（图表作文）．
The examinees are required to follow the directions and develop the composition into three paragraphs to form an essay of no less than 100 words in 30 minutes．The essay should be clear，coherent and grammatically correct．Therefore，from this unit on，we are going to introduce the above five types of compositions respectively．
28．1 Situational Composition
In recent years，situational composition has been frequently used in CET—4．This kind of writing requires students to write according to the given situation（sometimes in Chinese，sometimes in English）；its characteristic is that the main idea and information are all contained in the given situation．
Sample Test Item
Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a three-paragraph composition on the topic“My Favourite Programme”．You should write no less than 100 word sand yon should base your composition on the outline（Given in Chinese）below．
1）我最喜爱的电视（或无线电）节目是……
2）这类节目的内容和特点；
3）我喜欢它的原因。
28．2 Analysis and Advice on the Writing
1）Read the directions carefully and make sure you understand them clearly，and try to understand everything that you are required to do；
2）Examine the given situation of each paragraph，then pick out the key words；
e．g．The key words of the above sample are：
①最喜爱的节目②内容，特点③原因
3）Find out the relationship between the title and each paragraph；
In the first paragraph，you write what your favourite programme is；and in the second paragraph，you have to describe the contents and characteristic of your chosen programme；In the end，yon write why yon like this particular programme．
4）You must produce the topic sentence of each paragraph．
e．g．
①My most favourite programme is……
②The programme is interesting as well as；instructive．
③The reason why I like it is that……
Model Essay 28-1
Nowadays radio and TV play a more and more important role in our daily lives．There are many programmes shown every day．Some of them are very good．My most favourite programme is“The Animal World”，which is shown on television every Sunday night．
The programme is interesting as well as instructive．It providesus with natural scenes of the lives of all kinds of wild animals together with the vivid explanations of the narrator．Besides，the pictures are very beautiful and some of them are also very valuable．They contain much information not only about animals，but also about plants．
The reason why I like this programme is that，being born and bred in the city，I have not seen any wild animals，and the programme compensates for this．In addition，it provides me with rich knowledge about nature and the animal world．
Believe it or not，it is really a great joy to watch it．
Writing Assignment for Unit 28
Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic“Why Do More And More Women Go In For Sports Nowadays？”You should write no less than 100 words and you should base your composition on the outline（Given in Chinese）below．
This is the most common composition practised in CET-4．Usually the title and the topic sentences of each paragraph are given．You are required to write exactly according to the title．You must use the given topic sentences．
Sample Test Item：
Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about“Television ”in three paragraphs．
You are given the first sentence of each paragraph an dare required to develop the idea in completing the paragraph．Your composition should be about 100words，not including the words given． Remember to write clearly．
Television
1）Television presents a vivid world in front of us．
2）Television can also play an educational role in our daily life．
3）However，television can also be harmful．
29．2 Analysis and Advice on How to Deal with the Essay
1）Read the directions carefully，and make sure that you understand the requirements；
2）Find out the relationship between the title and the topic sentences．
From the above analysis，we know that we may use the technique of examples to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of television in our daily life．
3）Thoroughly examine the topic sentences，then pick out keywords in each topic sentence；
e．g．The key words of each topic sentence in the above writing are：“vivid world”，“educational role in daily life”，“harmful”．
4）Find out the relationships between the topic sentences；
From the given topic sentences，we can see that the second topic sentence is a further development of the first one．The transitional word“also”shows that the two topic sentences are parellel．So we have to write the advantages of television in the first two paragraphs—in the first paragraph，write“vivid world”，while in the second，“educational role”；In the third topic sentence，the transitional word “However”changes the point of view from positive“vivid”，“educational”to negative“harmful”．Thus，we should write the disadvantages of television in the paragraph．
Model Essay 29-1
Television
Television presents a vivid world in front of us．On television，we can watch exciting football matches or Olympic marathons．We can“travel”to New York to visit its famous monuments and museums or to London to attend the royal wedding．We can also“go”to a concert with a cup of coffee in one hand． With a TV set，we can take part in many events without leaving the house．
Television can also play an educational role in our daily life．Besides regular courses to TV university students，television also offers various educational programmes for different viewers．Children like“Tan gram”；young people like the“ABC of Computers”；and elderly people like“Life and Health”．Of all the educational programmes，“English on Sunday ”is my favourite．
However，television can also be harmful．It hurts our eyes and can cause nearsightedness．Watching TV too much influences our sleep and work and cuts down children's study time．Furthermore，some TV programmes are ideologically incorrect．In short，we should watch TV selectively and regard it as our servant，not our master．
Writing Assignment for Unit 29
Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about “Advertisement” in three paragraphs．You are given the first sentence of eachparagraph and are required to develop the idea in completing the paragraph．Your composition should beabout 100 words，not including the words given．Remember to write clearly．
Advertisement
1）Advertisement appears everywhere in modern society．
2）Advertisement can be a service to people．
3）However，advertisement also has its problems．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:02 标题: 第三十单元 关键词作文Key Words Composition 第三十单元 关键词作文Key Words Composition
30．1 Introduction
In this kind of composition，a series of key words are given together with the title．It requires students' imagination and association in connecting the words logically without going astray from the main topic．
Sample Test Item
指示：在30分钟内以“City and Countryside”为题，写一篇120词左右的短文，必需包括下列关键词及表达方式，要求使用正确、恰当。
Key Words and Expressions：
similarities differences environment
transportation education entertainment
colourful boring public health servic
reduce the gap
30．2 Analysis and Advice on How to Achieve Successful Writing
1） Read the directions carefully，and try to understand each word or phrase including the title；
2）Find out the relationship between the key words and the title；
The analysis of the above tells us that we should use the technique of comparison ＆ contrast to write the essay，showing the differences between the city and the country-side．
3）Analyse the key words，then organize your idea logicall；According to the title and the key words，we know that the purpose of the writing is to discuss the similarities and differences of the city and the countryside．You should divide the key words into three paragraphs．In the first paragraph，introduce the main topic— the city and the countryside have both similarities and differences；In the second paragraph，discuss the different fields—environment，education，transportation，entertainment and health service in the city and countryside；In the end，summarize the whole passage．
4）Write an appropriate topic sentence for each paragraph before starting your essay；
a．topic introducer：The city and the countryside are similar in some ways，but there still exist great differences in several areas．
b．topic sentence：Generally speaking，the city and the countryside differ mainly in the fields of environment，transportation，public health service，edtucation and entertainment．
City Countryside
environment polluted fresh，clean
transportation convenient，cheap difficult，costly
public health service well-equipped poor-equipped
education advanced backward
entertainment colourful boring
c．Conclusion：As we have seen，there are still great differences between the city and the countryside，but further economic development will certainly reduce the gap between the two in the near future．
Model Essay 30-1
The city and the countryside are similar in some ways，but there still exist great differences in several areas．Generally speaking，the city and the countryside differ mainly in the fields of environment，transportation，public health service，education and entertaintment．
First of all，in the city public transport is good and brings people to almost any place in a short time and for little money while travelling in the countryside is difficult and costly．On the other hand，heavy traffic and business activities in the city pollute the environment whereas the air in the countryside is fresh and clean and filled with bird songs．Secondly，people in the city can get advanced education；However students in the countryside can not．What's more，if city dwellers are ill，it is easy for them to get treatment in a well-equipped hospital；On the contrary，the rural population has to travel long distances to see a doctor．Finally，the many stores，cinemas，dancing halls and restaurants make life in the city colorful as opposed to the simple and some people even say boring life in the countryside．
As we have seen，there are still great differences between the city and the countryside，but further economic development will certainly reduce the gap between the two in the near future．
similarities，differences，homework，attend classes，call the parents，under the supervision of，treated as adults，study hard，enjoy sports and games，talk with friends and classmates
A title-given composition requires students to grasp the ideas expressed in the title，and to create a piece of writing that has unity，support and coherence． Because there is no hints or any extra information in addition to the title．This kind of writing is comparatively difficult．But students may have a lot of freedom in writing．
Sample Test Item
Directions：Write a composition on the topic“Should Firecrackers Be Banned？”Your composition should be at least 100words．Remember to support the main idea with details and make your conclusion．Coherence is also important．
Write clearly．
31．2 Advice on How to Write the Composition
1）Examine the title carefully and make sure that you understand the main idea of the title；
2）Organize your ideas and write out an outline；
3）Produce a topic sentence for each paragraph；
4）Draft your essay．
31．3 Analysis of the Sample Test Item
1）Main idea of the title
The controlling idea is“firecrackers”．You seem to have a lot to write about．But your topic has been limited by the sentence“Should…be banned？”It is an interrogative sentence，so it must be a controversial topic．
2）Outline of the sample
Since it is a controversial topic，different opinions must exist．Thus，it is advisable to write out the conflicting opinions of different people．
a．different people have different opinions
b．good—reflects the heritage of Chinese culture
adds much to the warm atmosphere
adds emjoyment of people
bad—brings great economic loss to the country
causes certain disorder in the society
pollutes our environment
c．Your own opinion and conclusion
3）Topic Sentence of each paragraph
① Firecrackers have been used in China for hundreds of years．
② People in China have different opinions about setting off firecrackers．
③ In my opinion，setting off firecrackers should be banned．
Model Essay 31-1
Should Firecrackers be Banned？
Firecrackers have been used in China for hundreds of years．Firecrackers were always part of New Year's celebrations，weddings and other important occasions．
In recent years，however，people in China have different opinions about the old custom of setting off firecrackers．Some people think setting off firecrackers is a good thing，because it reflects the heritage of Chinese culture．It also adds much to the enjoyment of people and the warm atmosphere during important holidays．But others，on the other hand，believe that setting off firecrackers should be banned．The main reasons in their eyes are that it not only brings great economic loss to the country，but also causes certain disorder in the society．Furthermore，it pollutes our environment．
In my opinion，setting off firecrackers should be banned．However，we should replace this old custom with new enjoyable and safe ways of entertainment．Only then can we spend our holidays in a peaceful and joyful manner．
Exercise for Unit 31
Directions：（略） Is Failure a Bad Thing？
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:03 标题: 第三十二单元 图表作文Writing a Composition Accor 第三十二单元 图表作文Writing a Composition According
to Tables and Graphs
32．1 Introduction
This kind of writing is an information interpretation process．The information may be given in numbers，lines or curves，etc．，usually a few explanations are given．The organization of the writing is essential to a good essay of tables and graphs．Generally，it is as follows：
General introduction——Analysis——Conclusion
概要介绍——分析图表——总结概括
That is，in the first paragraph，you have to demonstrate the general situation of what has been reflected in the table or graph；Then，in the second paragraph，you have to analyse carefully the numbers，lines or curves，and point out the rate of increase or discrease；In the end，you have to write your own opinion or comment．
Sample Test Item
Directions：Write a composition based on the title and the following chart in no less than 120 words．The causes are given under the horizontal line and the precentage of the totalof 80 fire incidents is given in the vertical column on the left．write clearly．
Leading Causes of Fires in China（1987）
32．2 Basic Writing Process of the Composition
1）Have a correct understanding of the given information，and grasp the main idea；
2）Make a careful analysis of the information，for example，ask yourself the questions like：
a．Who or what caused the fires？
b．What is the relationship between cause and frequency of fires？
3）Write an outline；
4）Use the right technique of writing．（The most common techniques used in this kind of writing is：comparison and contrast．）
32．3 Analysis of the Sample Test Item
The main idea of the graph is：Fire causes．From the graph，we know that there are three main causes of fires：
a．Smokers （nearly50％）
b．Defective insulation （38％）
c．Children playing with matches （12％）
Thus，we can，by comparing the above information，make a comment of the main topic，then reach a conclusion．
Model Essay 32-1
From the graph above，we can see that fire，one of the most terrible killers in China，is mainly caused by smokers，defective insulations or children playing with matches．
In 1987，80 fire incidents took place in China．While nearly50％were caused by smokers，38％were caused by defective insulation，and12％were caused by children playing with matches．No matter what the type of the fire，we can almost be sure that they were caused by carelessness．
From the graph，we can conclude that smokers are the leading cause of fires，but we also need to educate our children，warning them of the dangers of playing with matches and instruct workers be more careful with insulation．
Writing Assignment for Unit 32
Directions：Write a composition based on the statistical table about the total amount of China import and export．Yourcomposition should be no less than 100 words．
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:03 标题: 第三十三单元 英文书信写作English Letter Writing 第三十三单元 英文书信写作English Letter Writing
33．1 Introduction
Letter writing tests the English letter writing skill of the examinees．In this unit，we are going to focus on different types of letter writing，their form and language．We will also give you some advice on how to write an effective English letter．
33．2 Type of letters（信的类型）
English letters are generally divided into two types：
a．personal letters个人书信
b．business letters事务书信
33．3 Form（格式）
An English letter usually consists of six parts：heading（信头），inside address（收信人地址），salutation（称呼），body（信主体），complimentary close（结尾客套语）and signature（署名）．
1）Heading：In the upper right hand corner of the first page，write your full address and the date．
2）Inside Address：On the left side，above the salutation，put the name and full address of the addressee．However，this is often omitted in personal letters．
3）Salutation：The greeting to the addressee，written flush with the left margin，two spaces below the inside address．A comma follows the salutation in a personal letter；in a business letter，it is followed by a colon（：）．Besides，in personal letters，first names are usually used，while in business letters，the surnames are used．
4）Body：The contents of the letter．
5）Complimentary Close：The closing of a letter．
The conventional complimentary closes in business letters are：“Yours truly，”“Yours sincerely，”“Sincerely yours，”“Sincerely，”“Cordially yours，”“Yours cordially，”etc．
The close of a personal letter is of a more free choice．“Yours，”Affectionately，“Fondly，”“Yours with love，”“Love，”“With best wishes，”etc．
6）Signature：Put your name（always handwritten）．
The table below will give you a more visual presentation of the letter form：
33．4 Language（语言）
The style and tone of a personal letter（个人书信的写作风格和笔调）differ from those of a business letter．While the former is casual（随便自然），the latter is formal（正规）．A business letter should be polite in tone（笔调客气），exact and concise in wording（选词精确、恰当）．However，for either of them，the style should be clear and direct（清晰、达意）．Also，paragraphs in business letters tend to be short．The first and last paragraphs are usually single-sentence paragraphs．
33．5 Advice on How to Write English Letters in CET—4Exams
1）Carefully read the directions and the requirements，distinguish the type of the letter：a personal letter or a business letter．
2）Be clear about the purpose of the writing，and what you are to express in the letter．
3）Write according to the appropriate form．Pay attention to the different writing requirements of a personal and business letter．
4）Try to be clear，direct，concise in your writing，avoiding too many complimentary words．
Model of a Business Letter：
Department of Computer Science
Southeast University
Nanjing，Jiangsu Province 210025
People's Republic of China
February 8，1996
Office of Foreign Students
Yale University
New Haven，Connecticut，06520
U．S．A．
Dear Sir/Madame：
I am a senior at the Department of Computer Science，Southeast University，expecting to graduate in July this year．I am writing to inquire about the possibility of being enrolled in your university as a graduate student as of September，1994．
In the past three years，I have majored in Computer Science．Presently，I am doing my graduation project．Enclosed is the transcript of all the subjects which I have so far completed at my university．I received an excellent score in the College English Test Band-Six（CET-6）sponsored by the Educational Commission of China and therefore my knowledge of English is adequate for me to continue my studies in the U．S．A．
Please send me information on admission to your univetsity．As I have no relatives in the U．S．A．，I would also like to know about the procedures for applying for finacial aid．
Thank you very much．I look forward to hearing from you soon．
Yours sincerely，
（Mr．）Zhang Hua
Writing Assignment for Unit 33
指示：你原计划要回家度暑假。写一封信告诉家人你现在决定不回去了，并解释原因。请在30分钟内写完。
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:03 标题: 第三十四单元 转换词语Transitional Words and Phra 第三十四单元 转换词语Transitional Words and Phrases
34．1 Introduction
In the writing of English compositions，we have to use transitional words or phrases in order to make logical connections between individual sentences and paragraphs as well as enhance the overall coherence of an essay．Otnerwise，the paragraph or the essaywill be loosely connected．To see the difference，let's compare the following two versions of a paragraph：
（1）
Speaking and writing are different in many ways．Speech depends on sounds．Writing uses written symbols．Speech developed about 500，000 years ago．Written language is a comparatively recent development．It was invented only about six thousand years ago．Speech is usually Informal．The word choice in writing is often relatively formal．Pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing．A standard diction and spelling system prevails in the writtenlanguage of most countries．Speech relies on gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice．Writing lacks gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice．Careful speakers and writers are aware of the difference．
（2）
Speaking and writing are different in many ways．Speech depends on sounds；writing，on the other hand，uses written symbols． Speech was developed about 500，000 years ago，but written language is a comparatively recent development，invented only about six thousand years ago．Speech is usually informal，while the word choice of writing，by contrast，is often relatively formal．Although pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing，a standard diction and spelling system prevails in the written language of most countries．Speech relies on gesture，loudness，and the rise and fall of the voice，but writing lacks these features．Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences．
34．2 Analysis of the above two versions
In paragraph（1），almost all connections are missing．Therefore，it is rather difficult for us to tell in how many ways speaking and writing are different．In paragraph（2），however，by using the six comparsion and contrast transitions，“on the other hand”，“but”，“while”，“by contrast”and“although”，we can easily identify that speaking and writing are different in six aspects．
34．3 常用的转换词语类型（Types of Commonly Used Transitional Words or Phrases）
1）Listing列举
first，second，third
firstly，secondly，thirdly
first，furthermore，finally
in the first place，in the second place，finally
last but not least
first and most important
to begin with，next，then，finally
the former…the latter the first step，the second step，the
next step
2）Illustrating（giving examples）说明（举例）
for example（f．e．） including
for instance（i．d．） mainly
namely such as
3）Emphasizing强调
obviously certainly
undoubtedly especially
surely above all
indeed most important of all
in fact most importantly
very likely
4）Paralleling并列
or that is，that's to say not only…but（also）
and in other words both…and as well as
neither…nor either…or
5）Adding补充
also（too） gain furthermore
further moreover what is more
then in addition besides
as well（as）
6）Comparison and Contrast比较与对照
comparatives：the same…as；be similar to；and…．，too；
（比较连接词）and…so…；not…and…not…，either；not
…neither…；both…and…；neither…nor…；
Just as…，so…；resemble；have…in common；
There are similarities between…and…
in the same way；equally important；
similarly
Contrastives：be…adj．/adv．+ er…than；more…than…；
（对照连接词）less…than…；not so…as；Unlike…/
Contrary to…/As opposed to…；Although/
Whereas/While；contrast with/differ from/
be different from；however/on the other
hand/in contrast
7）Time时间
now in the past until
soon recently after a while
later nowadays not long after
then while in the mean time
before since meanwhile
8）Space Order空间
under the table in the distance
on the hilltop across the river
in front of the room next to the door
in the back of the room on the front wall
on the tenth floor along the street
nearby far away
inside the house outside the school
behind the cupboard by the window
round the corner on the opposite side of the street
at the foot of the mountain at the bottom of the sea
9）Cause and Effect因果
since so…that…
because thus
because of this/that hence
because of the fact that therefore
as a result accordingly
as a result of otherwise
be due to be responsible for
consequently cause
be a consequence of lead to
as a consequence of contribute to
be the reason for result in
follow from bring about
result from give rise to
10）Concluding总结
in conclusion to conclude
to sum up in brief
at last in short
finally
11）Qualifying转折（限定）
but however （al）though
yet except for nevertheless
of course after al clearly
still
34．4 Assignment for Unit 34
Directions：There are twenty blanks in the following passage．For each blank there is a transitional word or phrase missing．You should choose the appropriate word or phrase of each blank from the given words or phrases below ．Be sure to use each of the given words or phrases，some of which may appear twice．
similarly，therefore，but，however，first of all，and，even，finally，for example，secondly，on the other hand，further-more，third，when，nevertheless，as aresult，or
Since we Americans are a blend of people from many countries，we have a very short history which can properly be called“American”．____，it is hard to find characteristics which apply to all Americans．We combine many extremes from many different cultures．____，we can make some generalizations．Our main characteristics include individuality，a combination of idealism and practicality，materialism，____a lack of parental influence，all of which permeate our lives．
____，we Americans value individuality．Our country was founded by strong individuals，and we do not like to be forced into conformity．Therefore，we insist on having a great deal of freedom．Interestingly enough，____，most Americans use this freedom to behave very much like most other Americans，and we are suspicious of those who do not conform．Hippies are individualists，____，but most Americans do not like them．By the same token，we consider ourselves very faithful to the laws of our country，____there are few among us who would not break one if it was felt that no harm would be done by doing so—such as by exceeding the speed limit or failing to report informally-received cash income on tax forms．
____，we Americans are both practical and idealistic．We place great value on doing things forourselves，for this is what our pioneer forefathers were forced to do．Many foreign visitors are surprised to find that many couples of comfortable means do their own yard work，their own house-work，their own repairs．____，we are very idealistic：We think we have the best political，social，and economic system yet devised，and we ____expect everything to go smoothly．
____our idealism，we are easily disillusioned．This is why so many marriages end in divorce—young couples' expectations from marriage are unrealistically high．____，it helps explain the dissatisfactions and protests of many young people，and ____older people，who enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world．
A ____characteristics of us Americans is that money is more important than prestige to us．People work extremely hard，so many，unfortunately，either have little leisure time，or do not know how to enjoy it．Why do we work so hard？It is not to achieve greater status or prestige，but simply to have more of the material objects and comfort that money can buy．
____，our parents have less influence on us than parents do in other countries．Many children are left in day-care centers by their working mothers，____with baby sitters when their parents go out at night．____，peer pressure is very great because children's feelings and desires are taken very seriously，and they are given a lot of freedom to form strong personalities．We leave home at a relatively early age，usually after high school，to take jobs and have our own apartments，____to go to college，where we are allowed a great deal of freedom．We choose our own spouses，even if our parents object，And，later in life，____our parents are old and helpless，we often live far away from them；many prefer to put them in nursing homes rather than to have the responsibility of caring for them daily．Many foreigners find this practice heartless．I suppose it is，____like many other qualities we Americans share，it is subject to change over a relatively short period of time．作者: U-Boat 时间: 2006-12-18 19:03 标题: 第三十五单元 总复习Revision Exercises 第三十五单元 总复习Revision Exercises
As is known to all，‘practice makes perfect’．Good，effective writing can only be achieved through much practice．So in this unit，we intend to give you 20 topics for your writing practice．
Exercise 35-1
Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the title“Computers”．You should base your composition on the following outline．Your composition should be about 120 words．Remember to write clearly．
Computers
1）计算机在现代社会中的作用；
2）计算机在家庭中的作用；
3）你对计算机的看法。
Exercise 35-2
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph essay by using the cause-effect technique to illustrate how overpopulatlon threatens the development of society．The following outline information will be of help．
Overpopulation Poses a Threat to the Development of Societies
1）scarcity of resources，including land
2）shortage of food
3）lack of health care，educational facilities and work opportunities
Exercise 35-3
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph composition of no less than 120words on the title“The Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Travel”
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Travel
Exercise 35-4
Directions：Write a composition on the title“The Project Hope”．Your composition should be based on the outline below
and should be start with the given opening sentence：
Education plays a very important role in the
modernization of our country．
The Project Hope
1）Present situation of education in our country；
2）Necessity of the project；
3）My suggestions．
Exercise 35-5
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph composition in no less than 120words on the title“For a Better Understanding between Parents and Children”．Your composition should bebased on the outline below and should be written clearly on the Composition Sheet．
Outline：
1）Present situation：lack of communication between parents and children
2）Possible reasons：a．different likes and dislikes
b．misunderstanding
c．others
3）Suggestions：a．for parents
b．for children
Exercise 35-6
Directions：Write a composition of about 120 words explaining how the dues of membership are spend．Use the information contained in the pie chart and your composition should be based on the outline given below．
Use of Photo Club Membership Dues Outline：
1）source of dues and areas of expenses
2）the largest and the smallest areas of spending
3）conclusion
Exercise 35-7
Directions：Write a composition on the title“Developing Listening Ability”．You are given the first sentence of each paragraph and are required to develop the given topic sentences into three paragraphs．Your composition should be about 120 words，not including the words given．
On Developing Listening Ability
1）At present，some Chinese students don't pay enough attention to the development of their listening ability．
2）As a matter of fact，listening is one of the most important ways to study a foreign language．
3）Personally，I believe that……
Exercise 35-8
Directions：Write a composition about“The Profession I Like to Follow”in three paragraphs．Your composition must be based on the outline given below and it should be no less than 120 words．
The Profession I Like to Follow
1）My definition of an ideal profession；
2）Reasons for my definition；
3）An example of my ideal profession．
Exercise 35-9
Directions：Write a composition of no less than 120 words on“The Early Model T Ford Cars”．Study the following table carefully；Your composition must be based on the informtion given in the table．Write three paragraphs to：
1）state the changes in the price of the cars；
2）state the changes in the output of the cars；
3）draw your own conclusions（reasons why Henry
Ford's cars have been so popular in the U．S．A．）
Exercise 35-10
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph composition on the title“Things Making Life Happy”．Your composition should be at least 120 words．Remember to support the main idea with details and make your conclusion．Write clearly．
Things Making Life Happy
Exercise 35-11
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph composition on the title“How to Prepare Steamed Crabs”．You should develop your
composition by using the given opening sentence belowand remember to use signal words to show clearly the different steps in the procedure．
How to Prepare Steamed Crabs
Almost everyone who lives in Guangdong likes to eat crabs．But do you know how to prepare them？
Exercise 35-12
Directions：You are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the graph below．The suggested title is“Car Accidents in Beijing”．Your composition should be no less than 120 words and you should quote as few figures as possible．Remember that your composition must be written according to the following outline：
1）Rise and fall of the rate of car accidents as indicated by the graph；
2）Possible reason（s）for the decline of car accidents in the city；
3）Your predictions of what will happen in the following year．
Exercise 35-13
Directions：Write a composition entitled“Reform and Open-door Policy in China”by developing the three given topic sentences into three paragraphs．Your composition should be about 120 words，not including the given sentences．
Reform and Open-door Policy in China
1）China's reform and open-door policy，which started ten years ago，has brought China a lot of benefit sand has changed our lives greatly．
2）But we are facing some new problems in the course of the reform and open-door policy．
3）In spite of the above mentioned problems，we should……
Exercise 35-14
Directions：Suppose your hobby is stamp-collecting，write a composition of no less than 120 words about this hobby using the following key words and expressions．
Key Words and Expressions：
at my leisure，never ending pleasure，album，historic data，distant land，customs，like-minded collector，show off，the latest find，stamp-collecting king
Exercise 35-15
Directions：Write a 3-paragraph composition on the title“Causes of Teenager Smoking”．Your composition should be at least 120 words and you must use the following keywords and expressions in your composition．
Key Words and Expressions：
turn to smoking，personal insecurity，as a way to，hide nervousness，fashionable，boredom，be eager to，behave like adults
Causes of Teenager Smoking
Exercise 35-16
Directions：Write a composition about“Causes for Air Pollution in the Northeastern City of Lanzhou”．Your composition
must be based on the outline given and it should be no
less than 120 words．
Causes for Air Pollution in the Northeastern City of Lanzhou
1）There are a lot of factories and oil refineries．
（Hinted information：few anti-pollution devices）
2）The city is built between and around hills．
（Hinted information：air trapped between the mountains not allowing the winds to disperse the air）
3）People use coal fires in winter and there are too many cars and trucks in the city．
（Hinted information：chemicals dumped in the Yellow River）
Exercise 35-17
Directions：According to the information given in the following chart，write a 3-paragraph report by using the technique of Comparison and Contrast to illustrate the increase and decrease of main causes of traffic accidents in Zhanjiang between 1993 and 1994．
Exercise 35-18
Directions：Write a letter of application in no less than 120 words．Follow the given directions and outline below．
Directions：Write a composition about“The Presevation of Wild Life”in three paragraphs．Your composition must be based on the outline given and it should be no less than120 words．
1）Necessity of presevation of wild life
2）Possible measures（What can be done to preservewild life）
3）My suggestions
Exercise 35-20
Directions：write a composition on the title“My Hometown”in no less than 120 words．